BACKGROUND MUSIC
AND THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT:
BORROWING FROM OTHER
DISCIPLINES.
by
MICHAEL GRIFFIN
Supervisor
Dr IGUSTI DARMAWAN
RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF EDUCATIONAL STUDIES
SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF ADELAIDE
June 2006
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Michael Griffin 2006
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Table of Contents
1.
Introduction 03
I.
Background 04
II.
Aims and significance 04
III.
Scope and limitations 05
2.
Why and how we learn 06
I.
The learning environment 06
II.
Emotions, feelings and learning readiness 08
III.
Music, emotion and arousal 09
IV.
Arousal and learning 11
3.
Human response to music 14
I.
Tempo 14
II.
Tonality 16
III.
Texture 17
IV.
Volume, form and melodic range 17
V.
Pitch 18
VI.
Combination effects 19
VII.
Response variation 19
4.
Research into the use of background music 20
I.
Health 20
II.
Consumerism 22
III.
Work-place 24
IV.
Education 27
5.
The problem with music selection in prior research 31
6.
Discussion and conclusion 34
I.
Summary 34
II.
Global goals of education 35
III.
Applying BM to the learning environment 36
IV.
The future and further investigation 39
7.
Reference list 42
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1. Introduction
I. Background
Human beings have always enjoyed a special relationship with the
organisation of audible sound we call music. Indeed, music is our oldest
form of expression (Menuhin 1979), and we know of no culture or
civilisation to have existed without some form of music-making. Through
the passage of time, the roles and functions of music have represented
manifold expressions to people, and in the present day music is ubiquitous
and readily available to all who seek it. Recent advances in digital music
technology and portable/personal music-playing devices have resulted in
background music being listened to by more people than ever before. One
market research study (Lo 2005) estimated “explosive growth and more to
come” in the mp3 player market.
The nature of human inquisitiveness extends to our need to understand our
emotional responses to music: Why does it move us so? How does it
inspire, motivate, console and relax us? Is music an unnecessary albeit
enjoyable adjunct to human existence or are there intangible but real
effects imparted on the human condition? And pertinent to this study, what
is the relationship between the presence or absence of music and human
task performance?
The body of academic research into the physiological, psychological and
cognitive effects of background music (BM) on human beings is growing
rapidly. Advances in neuroscientific brain imaging techniques and the
emergence of relatively new fields such as music therapy, music medicine
and music psychology - as well as the highly sophisticated commercial
retail marketing sector have been at the forefront of research into the
effects of BM on human behaviour and response. For example, medical
studies have been exploring the use of music with heart beat regulation,
memory restoration with dementia patients, re-routing verbal expression
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through music and improving recovery rates following surgical procedures
(Pelletier 2004). Marketing specialists are researching the link between
music, brand association and eating/drinking habits, and manipulating
customer satisfaction in adverse situations such as crowded places,
waiting cues and on-hold phone calls (Lammers 2003; Jacob 2006). In
comparison, the education sector has undertaken fewer investigations into
the use and effects of BM in educational settings and those that do exist
tend to focus on whether BM can lift performance or change the behaviour
of school students in the classroom (Hallam and Price 1998).
II. Aims and significance
The purpose of this essay is to review the growing body of research into
the effects of BM listening on human mood and behaviour in a multi-
disciplinary context. Ultimately, it is hoped that outcomes resulting from this
research paper will better equip schools and parents with knowledge about
the effects and applications of music in maximising the learning
environment; in particular improving cognition and constructive behaviours.
I will examine methodological flaws within some research models, namely
the selection of music for research, and propose ideas for further studies in
the educational context.
There is little documented evidence of discriminate BM use in schools.
However, the sum of research from other disciplines and perspectives
creates a powerful educators’ lobby for more serious consideration of the
creative use and implementation of BM within educational settings.
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III. Scope and limitations
The scope of this essay deals with BM listening on a conscious and sub-
conscious level. BM refers to “music intended to be heard but not actively
or purposely listened to” (Musselman 1974, in Bendall (1994)). It does not
refer to organised, analytical listening, and is distinct from music education
curriculum programs or practical music making. This is not intended to be
an advocacy paper for music education’s inclusion in curricula. This paper
researches the associated benefits (non-musical) derived from the
listening of BM; benefits in knowledge or performance in the other
intelligences as listed by Howard Gardner (1984).
The behavioural effects encountered when listening to music will be
considered short-term unless otherwise stated. There may well be lasting
effects resulting from music listening, but that is beyond the scope of this
paper. In any case, short-term benefits are not insignificant, for the best
learning often takes place in small time sectors when arousal and on-task
performance levels are high. This is the value of carefully selected BM: to
enhance the level of arousal required for optimal learning.
The scope of this study describes how educators can maximise all learning
experiences. Whilst this study deals with music, educators should be
constantly searching and evaluating the correlation between environmental
conditions, classroom facilities and student outcomes. Lighting,
temperature, ventilation, noise, decoration and space management should
all be considered as arousal stimuli, and many of these factors are being
explored (Leung and Fung 2005).
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2. Why and how we learn
I. The learning environment
“Learners instinctively want to understand how the world works. This
understanding gives them an improved capacity to cope with their
environment” (Author-Unknown n.d). We can substitute ‘human beings’ for
‘learners’, as surely no creature has such a disposition or a desire to learn
as humankind. This is supported by music education philosopher Elliott
(1995) who asserts that the true goals in life are self growth, self-esteem
and enjoyment (p.119). But we know this. Every parent and educator has
witnessed their children’s intrinsic enjoyment when a new sense of the
world is understood. Self-growth comes not only from introspection and
self-knowledge, but also from understanding the world around us. The
successful acquisition of self-knowledge results in self-esteem (ibid, p.118),
which prepares the learner for new experiences and increased
consciousness.
Human beings seek self-esteem and happiness more than anything else
-Aristotle
Self-esteem is essential for positive human behaviour and for further
learning preparedness. It provides us with the courage to try new things
and decreases our fear of failure. The modern day educational climate
subscribes to positive reinforcement methodologies to boost the self-
esteem of students. We believe that any increase in self-esteem results in
greater resilience in difficult times. Successful learning results in self-
esteem leading to a renewed desire to learn.
And unless this cycle is interfered with, we have a working model of the
self-motivated individual.
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Figure 1: Successful learning model
This self-motivated individual has experienced success and enjoyment in
learning, and wants to repeat the experience. S/he has probably entered
into the first stage of ‘flow’, a term invented by psychologist Mihaly
Csikszentmihalyi (1990) which implies an optimal learning zone in which
one has a depth of concentration, is enjoyably lost in the activity and
extremely focussed on the task at hand. We have many synonyms for this
learning condition: focussed, engaged, switched-on, in the zone (usually
for sport), fired up (in competition) and I’m sure, many more. In its purest
sense, Csikszentmihalyi’s realization of ‘flow’ comes about when the
challenge set is met by the skills required.
Figure 2: adapted from Csikszentmihalyi (1990) pg. 74
Anxiety
Boredom
Skills
high
low
Challenge
FLOW
high low
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For now, I would like to consider flow as an increase in on task
performance (OTP).
II. Emotions, feelings and learning readiness
Our mood state, affected by our emotions and feelings can enhance or
interfere with the successful learning model of the engaged individual.
Human understanding of the role of the emotions in human intelligence and
behaviour has grown and changed significantly over the centuries. For the
Greek Philosophers the rational ruled the emotional. Cognition and
emotion were considered separate entities and the ideal human state was
one in which the mind kept the emotions in check. Indeed, this model from
Plato’s The Republic is today generally refuted by scholars, the position
being that emotions are indeed essential to cognition and decision making
processes. Recent neuroscience study showing more neural connections
between the limbic system to the intellectual neo-cortex (Michels 2001) and
well known writings of Daniel Goleman (1996) assert that feeling is no less
important to thought in decision-making and acting. In fact Goleman takes
this further reasoning that emotional intelligence (known as EQ or EI) is the
central and most vital form of knowing. According to him, it is a much
greater predictor of life success than the historically valued intelligences
used in the Stanford-Binet IQ testing system. Howard Gardner, in his
landmark Frames of Mind (1984) also challenges old intelligence theories
placing emotional intelligence and musical intelligence amongst others as
unique ways of knowing alongside language and mathematic/analytical
intelligences.
…the little emotions are the captains of our lives and we obey them without
realizing it.
-Vincent Van Gogh, 1889
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It is accepted that emotions produce physiological changes and can alter
our mood state. In emotional states of arousal, the pulse rate rises, as
does body temperature and blood pressure; facial expressions change and
so forth. Alpay (2002) suggests that this arousal is a natural human
condition which prepares us for the primal ‘flight or fight’ response
instinctive in survival. Our attention narrows, and we become alert and
ready to respond to a given situation. In his excellent paper on arousal and
education, Alpay puts forward a crucial point; that when internal (or
intrinsic) motivational drives are low, external arousal is often necessary to
attend to learning situations in the classroom (p.5). Learning is dependent
upon appropriate emotional state, the right level of arousal, good mood and
a sufficient level of self-esteem. Generally, this emotional state needs to be
positive, but as Forgas (2006) argues, some tasks are better handled in a
negative emotional state as it encourages greater caution and accuracy.
Also, Wilson (2000) found that a sad emotive state helped students
memorize negative facts such as war history, world tragedy etc, and
likewise a cheerful state encouraged the learning of positive facts such as
the achievements of mankind.
But what external stimulants arouse?
III. Music, emotion and arousal
The senses. Learning environments can be influenced through visual
imagery, colour, aromatherapy, and sound. It is this sensory learning
environment that has the capacity to influence student motivation for
learning tasks.
Sound refers to speech, ambient noise and music, and neuroscientists
have found that each is processed in different parts of the brain (Carey
2002).
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Of all the emotional stimuli, music is held in special esteem. We celebrate
life’s joys and tragedies with music and the youth culture often define their
identity with music. Yehudi Menuhin (1979) refers to music as a form of
expression which is clearer and more in touch with our emotional selves
than the abstract nature of words. Mursell (Elliott 1995) says that music is
the most emotive of the arts, and that this is the secret of its universal
appeal. Music is “the emotional essence of (an) experience crystallised in
tone” (ibid). Stephen Handel (1989) explains why music is more emotive
than visual art: “Listening is centripetal; it pulls you into the world. Looking
is centrifugal; it separates you from the world”. Through recent fMRI
(functional magnetic resonance imaging) and PET (positron emission
topography) studies, leading neuro-cognition scientist Stefan Koelsch
(2005) has confirmed the linking of emotionally valent music with the
known emotional centres of the brain. Interestingly, and as an aside, he
discusses the trend in using music stimuli rather than the historical
precedent of using visual art images:
However, during the past years, the neurosciences have discovered
that music is also a valuable tool to investigate emotion. Important
advantages of music are
(1) That music is capable of inducing emotions with a fairly strong
intensity
(2) That such emotions can usually be induced quite consistently
across subjects, and
(3) That music can induce not only unpleasant, but also pleasant
emotions, which are rather difficult to induce by static images.
(p.412)
Does it follow therefore, that music- through the emotions -can arouse and
manipulate human behaviour? And specifically for the purpose of this
paper- can music arouse in us a readiness to learn, enhance an optimal
learning environment and increase on task performance? Savan (1996)
says that because emotion and physiological changes are inextricably
linked, then music will exert physical change. Whether or not this can be
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transferred into better learning behaviours is the major issue to be explored
in the remainder of this paper.
IV. Arousal and learning
The historical view of external stimuli including BM acting upon a learning
situation has been based on Cognitive Learning Theory. This theory of
working memory suggests that the mind has limited attention resources in
processing parallel steams of information, and can succumb to overload
when subjected to too much information. As far back as 1890, William
James wrote about the fact that in comparison with long-term memory,
working memory is very limited (Miyake and Shah 1999). So in this context,
it has historically been assumed that BM would probably interfere with
cognitive processing. However, Gardner’s ‘Theory of Multiple Intelligences’
and much neuroscientific study on the brain and working memory suggest
that since processing of separate intelligences takes place in different parts
of the brain, categorisation of perceived impediments may not be that
straightforward. A simple analogy is that of the tri-athlete who is able to
run, swim and cycle a great distance because each activity uses different
muscles. Davidson and Powell (1986) conducted experiments on the
effects of BM in the science classroom and found an increase in on task
performance as a result. They further reasoned that any increase in on
task performance should cause an enhancement in academic achievement
(p.29).
Another well known psychological model of performance and arousal was
developed by Yerkes and Dodson in 1908, and provides a useful
representation to clarify this further. Known as the Yerkes-Dodson law, it
suggests that arousal will increase task performance to an optimum level,
but once that level is crossed, task performance deteriorates (Wikipedia-
Contributors 2006). We could consider the arousal stimulant to be
‘interference’ once it crosses this threshold. Using this understanding,
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Hallam, Price et al. (2002) suggest that BM can be used to increase or
maintain student arousal levels for study purposes. This, they explain, is
dependant on the set performance task. The greater the cognitive
challenge, the less stimuli required whereas tasks requiring stamina or
persistence, or tasks menial in nature will benefit from higher levels of
arousal to increase motivation. This has been borne out in many studies
(Oldham, Cummings et al. 1995), Alpay (2002), Giles (1991) and Lesiuk
(2005).
Figure 3: Yerkes-Dodson Law van Gorp (2002)
Furnham and Allass (1999) argue that when considering arousal, an
additional factor which must be taken into account is personalty profile.
Taking from Eysenck’s 1967 theory in which personality types are labelled
as introvert or extrovert, Furnham and Allass claim that personality type will
determine the amount of “external stimulation required [in creating] an
optimal level of arousal” (p.28, 29). Obviously, the human personality is
unique and each one fits somewhere along the introvert–extrovert
continuum rather than at the poles. This implies that a personalised
stimulation level would be required to achieve an optimum arousal level for
every individual. This is supported by Alpay (2002, p4) who summarises
“…introverted students are generally perceived to desire little arousal,
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which would otherwise cause anxiety, whereas extroverts are likely to
desire relatively high levels of arousal”. Extroverts have a higher threshold
than introverts in tolerating BM and perhaps noise. This serves as a
reminder to the educational community for the need to acknowledge
individual learner profiles.
The most significant findings of Furness and Allass (1999) were that
introverts performed better than extroverts in silence, and worse when
subjected to television distraction (p.29).
To cater for a learning environment full of mixed personalities, it would
seem that less complex music (i.e. simple music with a low information
load) would be the best ‘fit’ and most appropriate choice for BM. It may be
that due to the diversity of personality types in the classroom, not all
students will benefit directly from the BM, but they may gain from reduced
classroom distractions as a flow on from the students’ whose study
patterns have improved directly as a result of BM.
Introvert Extrovert
Reading Comprehension Level
Silence Television distraction
Figure 4: Distraction and personality type
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3. Human response to music
…music has come to be considered as lying on a continuum from
highly stimulating and invigorating to soothing or calming
-Gaston, Hallam and Price (1998).
The range of human reaction to music is due mainly to the constituents of
the music itself. The uniqueness of the individual determines that there will
be different responses based on events and environmental conditions, but
on the whole, music’s emotional message is received remarkably
consistently across cultures.
In the past 25 years, many studies have been undertaken in an attempt to
isolate the musical factors which elicit particular responses and behaviours.
As we have seen from cognitive learning theory, music listening exerts an
information load on the listener. Tempo, tonality, texture, volume, form and
melodic range all have variables which determine information load and
hence arousal degree on the listener.
I. Tempo
According to Dalla Bella, Peretz et al. (2001), there is a natural human
tendency to associate tempo with emotional judgement. With her team of
researchers, Dalla Bella found that children were able to make correct
emotional judgements in terms of happy/sad music by the age of five. It
takes another 3-5 years, she claims, before tonality is similarly used to
determine emotional judgement from music. Dalla Bella refers to other
studies which support this notion that tempo sensitivity precedes mode
sensitivity in human development.
It has been shown (Brodsky 2005) that listeners find some tempos more
enjoyable than others and can notice discreet differences in pace, and
remember rhythmic speed over a long period of time.
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Slow tempi have always been associated with tranquil, sentimental, solemn
and sad (Hevner 1935), and fast –exhilarating and joyous. Many studies
including Furnham and Allass (1999) have determined that fast music
induces greater arousal levels than slow music. A possible explanation for
this could be that there are extra musical events to be processed by the
listener in a given time frame. Hence, faster music is perceived to be more
complex.
Most BM falls in the range of 60 and 120 beats per minute (bpm) (Kellaris
and Kent 1993) with a favoured range of between 70-110bpm.
Recent research (Husain, Thompson et al. 2002) has suggested that
tempo changes are more closely associated with arousal rather than
emotion. Rhythms evoke physical responses. The pulse component of
rhythm carries us along and engages us in foot tapping, finger clicking,
head nodding and dancing.
Increasing tempo
Arou
sal
Figure 5: tempo and arousal
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II. Tonality
Tonality or modality, as it is sometimes called, refers to the musical scale,
or set of notes in which the music is based upon. Whilst there are many
scales or modes in music worldwide, in western music the two most
common are major and minor. Tonality is often instantly recognisable in its
emotional valence of ‘happy’ or ‘sad’. Like many educators, I have regularly
performed action research on children and with few exceptions they
correctly associate major with ‘happy’ and minor with ’sad’. As Webster
and Weir (2005) concluded, this has been found consistently and Dalla
Bella, Peretz et al. (2001; Webster and Weir (2005) found that this
sensitivity is fully developed by about the age of six to eight years.
Tonality can also be referred to as consonant and dissonant which is
defined as pleasant, acceptable sounding music as opposed to harsh,
unpleasant music. Consonant music can be either major or minor, whereas
dissonant music is usually unexpected and unfamiliar combinations of
notes. In terms of information load, consonant music exerts the lesser.
Although the above gives us an appropriate understanding of human
response to tonality for the purpose of this paper, any in-depth discussion
regarding emotional attachment to the modes would delve deeper than the
simple major/minor and happy/sad associations. Classical Greece
understood each mode to have its own ethos. For example, according to
Lloyd (1968), Plato associated the Dorian mode with masculine qualities
and the Lydian with feminine.
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III. Texture
Texture can refer to the thickness of the musical presentation as well as
the juxtaposition of musical entries. The simplest texture –monophonic,
refers to a single melody either by itself or played by many in unison.
Homophonic music adds vertical support –chords to this, whilst polyphonic
texture as the name implies is contrapuntal in nature. As one would expect,
monophonic exerts the least information load, followed in order by
homophonic then polyphonic. Simply harmonised melodies (like those of
the rococo period) evoke positive emotions whereas complex harmonies
evoke negative emotions (Gabrielsson & Lindstrom in Webster and Weir
(2005)). Texture also refers to vocal or non-vocal (instrumental) music.
Many researchers have found that vocal music (not wordless vocalises, but
music with sung words), is considerably more disruptive than instrumental
music. Salamé and Baddeley (1989) found this to be the case in a memory
task involving visually presented material. This was confirmed by Hallam
and Price (1998) and further supported by Furnham and Allass (1999) who
concluded that the most distracting BM is fast, familiar vocal music known
by, chosen, and liked by the listener. Further studies by Lesiuk (2005),
Pring and Walker (1994) and again Hallam and Price (1998) have
confirmed the higher listening load resulting from vocal music. Interestingly,
instrumental arrangements of songs have about the same effect as if the
words were being sung, possibly due to the visuo-spatial analysis of the
implied word association.
IV. Volume, Form and Melodic range
As for volume, form and melodic range, results have run along expected
lines. Narrow dynamic range, repetitive forms and narrow pitch range all
result in easier processing (Pelletier 2004). Ascending melodic lines are
associated with happiness, descending with sadness (Gerken in Webster
and Weir (2005)).
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V. Pitch
There is some interesting but yet inconclusive study in regard to our
emotional and cognitive response to Pitch. Some researchers such as
Savan (1996, 1998) believe that the co-ordination centre of the brain may
be stimulated through bombardment of particular frequencies. Using a
premise that the music of Mozart makes use of these high frequencies
more than many other composer, Savan carried out experiments in her
science classroom to ascertain whether aural stimulation at high
frequencies (using mainly the music by Mozart) might help children with
special needs. In her assessment, the response to the music was marked
and highly successful. Amongst other things, she reported some students’
under-estimating time perception, reportedly feeling physically better, and
showing improved altruistic behaviours in class. Savan (1998), a science
teacher, physiologist and biochemist, acknowledged that a number of
explanations could be responsible for this, but presents her theory that
certain frequencies release endorphins in the brain, which in turn have
positive effects on blood pressure, adrenalin and corticosteroids. This
physiological change, she says, results in calmer and more positive
student behaviour.
Note that the use of the music of Mozart by Savan is not to be confused
with the well chronicled ‘Mozart Effect’ claimed by Rauscher and Shaw in
1993.
Commercially based sound therapy companies such as the ‘Samonas’
movement and ‘Advanced Brain Technologies’ make a number of claims
regarding the benefits of their auditory programs. They have in common:
1. Attributing philosophy to Dr. Alfred Tomatis, a French E.N.T
specialist from the 1940’s
2. A simplistic claim that high frequency sounds energize the brain
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3. Little or no research documentation or explanation to back up their
claims
VI. Combination effects
Some research has concentrated on the combined effects of these
elements. In particular, Webster and Weir (2005) found that major and
minor modes had different tempo thresholds for arousal effectiveness. That
is, harmonised minor music at 72bpm produced the saddest response
whilst non-harmonised major music at 144bpm produced the happiest
response. This is supported by the Yerkes-Dodson law of arousal and
performance in that music faster than 144bpm began to lose its
effectiveness, but when in the minor mode, the level of arousal continued
to rise.
VII. Response variation
Despite the general trends in responding to the emotional content within
music, we can expect some variation in response based on memory
(personal experiences) and personality type. We remember emotionally
charged events:
An impression may be so exciting emotionally as almost to leave a
scar upon the cerebral tissues…
James (1890)
And it could be argued that conversely the events we remember influence
our emotional response to music. Given that younger children have had
less opportunity to associate music with events, possibly they can more
accurately perceive innate music-emotion intention. Here we have two
areas ripe for further investigation.
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The other plausible explanation has already been alluded to; that of
personality type (introvert/extrovert continuum) as posited by Furnham and
Allass (1999). They argue that people react differently to musical
stimulation due to individual arousal levels depending on their personality
profile. This is supported in the recent study on “Personality and Musical
Preferences” (Kopacz 2005).
4. Research into the use of background music
I. Health
an air like Home sweet home…will sensibly soothe the (sick)
Nightingale (1860)
Florence Nightingale was aware of the contribution of music to health but
at that time in history, live music –with the exception of singing, was too
expensive to be seriously considered (p.57).
There have been many and various studies into the effect of BM on health,
mostly centred on stress reduction. In health terms, stress refers to anxiety,
fear or tension which results in physiological arousal (Pelletier 2004).
According to Cheek, Bradley et al. (2003) stress reduction and
management programs are in abundance (p.204). Music therapy can be
considered an expressive therapy which addresses stress by opening
avenues of self-realisation in the discussion of the symbolism found in
music. In his study on well-being in later life, Hays (2005) believes that
music should be regarded as a branch of preventative medicine as the
provision of music can provide “identity, stimulation, well-being and
motivation” for the elderly (p.29).
The most common stress reduction outcome appears to be achieving a
lowering of heart rate and blood pressure. Fagerlonn (2005) says that heart
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rate remains a reliable mental stress indicator (p.1) and that “listening to
music is an established and well known method to reduce stress” (p.6).
Whilst many people subjectively report stress reduction outcomes from
listening to certain types of music, Knight and Riccard (2001) claim
physiological proof that music is an effective anxiolytic treatment. In
Savan’s action research in 1996, as well as observing behavioural change
in the classroom she measured significant physiological changes attributed
to the use of relaxing music in her classes. The results showed drops in
systolic and diastolic blood pressure, pulse rate and temperature.
The use of music to reduce stress is well documented. A recent meta-
analysis (Pelletier 2004) of 22 studies found that all yielded positive results.
These studies –carried out from 1977-2003, were based on passive music
listening as the intervention, and stress-decrease was based on heart-rate
measurement and to a lesser degree self-report and observation.
Pelletier’s results revealed:
- Greater stress-reduction benefits for subjects under 18 years of
age (p.205)
- More significant results when the selection of BM was based on
research rather than personal choice (p.206)
- More effective results with musically educated people (p.208)
In a study on the effectiveness of music therapy techniques in treating 51
teachers suffering from stress (Cheek, Bradley et al. 2003), significant
benefits were found. Music listening, sharing and discussion was deemed
to open avenues of personal and emotional exploration which facilitated
empathy and communication within a group setting. The advantages of this
process are
- no real musical expertise required by group leader
- applicable to adolescent students as well as adults
- inexpensive materials
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The positive health effects of regular exercise are commonly accepted.
Wininger and Pargman (2003) state that enjoyment is an important factor
in maintaining an exercise program (p.57). Furthermore, they found that
the most significant factor influencing exercise enjoyment is music.
Through other studies (p.59) they purport appropriate ‘exercise’ music
(which is highly dependant on the right tempo and volume (p.70)) to
decrease feelings of fatigue and depression (from Lee, 1989) and to lower
levels of perceived exertion (in Steptoe and Cox, 1988). Dubai based
physical trainer Ed Truari obtains specially designed workout-music
packages from a New Zealand based company. Each song in the package
is tailored to the exercise routine, the key features being high-information
load such as fast tempi, loud volume and the inclusion of vocals (Truari
2006).
II. Consumerism
Jensen (1998) says that music (through the emotions) can “drive the
threesome of attention, meaning and memory”, and that “listening to music
is both cognitively and emotionally arousing”. This has been discussed in
some detail already, but marketing researchers and consumer response
might equally quip ‘music can drive your marketing dollar further’.
These days it is rare to find a supermarket that does not play BM. Many of
us understand the objectives behind this music: keep the customer in a
pleasant mood and in a frame of mind to want to spend longer time in the
environment. Music enhances the environment through pleasure and
stimulation (Coloma and Kleiner 2005), and it is these two determinants
that affect consumer behaviour. This is the result of extensive research and
investigation; the industry spends millions of dollars on music with the
understanding that it will assist with sales (Kellaris, Cox et al. (1993).
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Michael Griffin 2006
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Caldwell and Hibbert (2002) found that patrons spent longer in a restaurant
with slow-tempo music playing, providing that they enjoyed the music.
Consequently, patrons spent 24% more on food and (mostly) beverages
with slow-tempo background music. This of course is the premise behind
supermarket music. The music is almost exclusively instrumental, major
key at about 70-80 beats per minute. The longer patrons linger and
browse, the more they spend (Milliman 1982).
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
t=72 t=94
Tempo
Time
minutes
Figure 6: Adapted from Caldwell and Hibbert (2002)
Can the education sector manage to extract anything out of this research
or do we simply pass marketing research off as immoral emotional
manipulation without educational application?
The premise of most consumer-music research is that music manipulates
our emotional state and creates a sense of well-being -or an illusion of. It
can powerfully associate with our memories; it can be attached to products
to enhance perception of quality and it can encourage us to linger or hurry.
Jacob (2006) cites a number of studies which claim that music can be
associated with product and hence affect product selection. These include
Yalch and Spangenberg (1990) and North et al (1999), who both
determined that different styles of BM led customers to buy more
expensive products. Associating music with message must be done with
caution (Hahn and Hwang 1999) as certain types of music such as fast
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music and unfamiliar music make greater demands on cognition and
overload the listener. They also found an optimal level of tempo that
maximises the message processing of customers which is dependant on
the information load of the message. In short: light message –faster music,
heavy message –slower music. This is consistent with our earlier
discussion on levels of arousal and cognition in the Yerkes-Dodson law.
Organisations wishing to improve customer satisfaction look for any means
possible to create positive illusions. For example, a study in the use of
music in dense and crowded environments (Eroglu, Machleit et al. 2005)
found that slow-tempo music can relieve the tension of crowding, but the
choice of music should not be too cognitively dissonant from the reality. For
example, it would seem bizarre to have a particularly slow piece of music
playing at a densely attended sporting event. The ‘fit’ would create a sense
of cognitive dissonance. The best solution would be to find a happy
medium between the two extremes.
Crowded environments as well as open-empty environments can be
stressful for some children. Conceivably BM could be used to create the
desired illusion and provide a more comfortable atmosphere.
Perhaps the greatest use of BM in the consumer world is in the world of
movies. Rarely is a film without musical accompaniment, the makers
having an implicit acknowledgement of the power of BM in telling a story
and creating an experience.
III. Work-place
There have been few studies on the deliberate use of BM in the work
environment. One of these, a study of personal head set use by employees
during work (Oldham, Cummings et al. 1995) found significant
improvements in performance and a feeling of personal well-being for
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those who chose to listen to music. This in turn improves work
performance because mood states are directly linked with performance
indicators such as absenteeism, job satisfaction and helping behaviour
(p.549). Consistent with cognitive processing theories the study also
determined that BM became detrimental to performance as the complexity
of the job requirement increased.
Figure 7: work place advantages in using BM
Another work-place/BM study supports these results. Music therapy
specialist Lesiuk (2005) found that BM in the work place reduced anxiety
and stress. In self-reporting surveys, employees from an information
technology firm in an open concept work environment pre-reported the
most stressful parts of their job and after working with background music
for an unspecified period of time delivered feedback on their experience.
First they listed the main work stress situations:
- office noise (distraction)
- keeping up with the workload, and
- dealing with clients
Is this any different to the classroom environment? Distraction, workload
and communication assertiveness afflict schools as much as workplaces.
Personal music
choice in the
workplace
- increased
sense of
well being
- better mood
state
- less stress
Better work
performance
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Michael Griffin 2006
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The most common positive responses from employees in Lesiuk’s study in
relation to having BM were:
- (BM) shuts out distractions
- immersed in my own world, more productive
- put me in a positive frame of mind, better mood
- general feeling of well being
- energising, especially after lunch
- calming before a large task, stay focussed for longer
- made time go by fast
- made me work quicker
- good for repetitive programming tasks
- helped my creativity
Respondents were also asked to list the negative aspects of having BM in
their workplace. Interestingly, the negative reports (which were far
outweighed by the positive reports) can be explained and solved through
common sense and the research findings presented thus far. My
comments from this basis are in italics.
- the same music over and over again
increase the length of the play list
- the music is too close using headsets
an alternative to headsets is the computer speaker
- complex music not good for difficult tasks
as per research. Find low-load music or turn it off.
- vocals were distracting
they demand more cognitive resources
- office communication difficult when people had headsets on
use the computer speaker rather than headsets
- the first day took adjustment time
Savan (1996) found this in schools, also
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- classical stuff made me sleepy
choose appropriate stimulation load, especially after lunch
- large dynamic ranges were distracting
as per research
- hard rock and opera distracting
vocals, fast tempi and sudden dynamic changes exert a large
cognitive load
IV. Education
The majority of research studies into the use of BM in schools are looking
for these outcomes:
1. Can BM improve classroom behaviour and atmosphere, and
2. Can BM improve the quality and/or quantity of work done in the
classroom?
These two questions form the crux of this investigation. It is probable but
not conclusive, that any improvement in (1) can result in (2). As one would
expect, many of the studies examined provide findings for both these
questions.
Leung and Fung (2005), in a study on facilities’ improvement in Hong Kong
primary schools, determined that sound was an important consideration in
the optimal learning environment. They challenge the age old notion
regarding quiet-classroom efficiency quoting Knirk (1987) “background
noise (like music) with a level of about 35 decibels can maximize alertness,
allow relaxation, improve classroom ambience, aid learning, and improve
academic performance” (p.587).
Non-music teachers such as Ebert (2006) and Savan (1996, 1999) use
background music as a behavioural and self control tool. Savan used the
BM of Mozart for a 5-month period having it on the whole time during
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science lessons with special-need children. She described the
transformation in classroom behaviour as ‘amazing’. Ebert also uses the
music of Mozart in class and finds it “calms the students when played at
the right level”. He turns the music off if the classroom noise level rises and
hence uses it as a subtle but effective non-verbal messaging tool: “when
they notice the background music is gone they become quiet again”.
The principal of Jumeirah College, Dubai chooses current popular music as
a school song (with a limited shelf life) for motivational purposes and to
promote school core values. He also uses that same music and other
pieces of BM in corridors between lessons as a ‘gap-filler’ and atmosphere
maker (Turner 2006). Whilst he does not systematically evaluate
behavioural response, Turner strongly believes in the power of music to
move people for the better.
Hallam and Price (1998) conducted BM experiments with a group of
behaviourally challenged children and found that once the students had
adjusted to the novelty of music in the classroom, there was a general
decrease in hostility and a greater level of co-operation among the
students. Hallam described these students as ‘stimulus-seeking’ and
‘hyperactive’, and reported that they still talked in class but they “talked
while working rather than instead of working”! (p.90)
In 2002, the same researchers conducted experiments with more typically
behaved students aged 10-12 years, comparing the effect of BM in maths
class, on a memory task, and its effect on altruistic behaviour. The study
found that calming music significantly improved maths work-rate, but only
marginally improved rates of accuracy. Further, aggressive and arousing
music lowered performance in the memory task and had a negative effect
on student altruistic behaviour. However, Fogelson (1973) found that the
reading performance of 8
th
grade students was adversely affected with BM.
This affected higher ability students even more so.
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In teaching music listening skills to year 8 students, one music teacher
(Cooling 2006) presents musical works in a formal and background
context. Following formal listening and analysis lessons on selected
repertoire, Cooling plays the studied music in a background context as the
students do simple written and artistic exercises related to the lesson.
From her experience, Cooling has found that this mixture of visual art and
music enhances student reflection and allows the students to contemplate
the lesson of the day. Whilst classroom silence is a condition of this
activity, Cooling has little trouble with students adhering to the ‘no-talking
during music’ rule –“even with naughty classes!”
The positive student behaviour outcome is indicative of the success of
Cooling’s approach. The extra-musical benefits from this exercise are
significant. In a world where mass media dictate the pace of events to
unsuspecting children, here they are given an opportunity for reflection in a
creative setting filled with music, art (drawing, colouring in etc), and no
hurried deadlines. The students also practise how to behave in a non-
verbal setting and delay their impulses to talk to each other. Also, the
students gain a richer aural experience from the music. Whereas the
culture of contemporary music sometimes allows participatory noise and
talking during performance, the complexity of classical (in the sense of
western European) music does not.
This last point relates to previous references including Hallam’s (2002)
discussion of the process of cognition in that the more complex the
intellectual task, the simpler the BM needs to be. I contend that the
converse is also true: that complex musical listening requires a free mind
only engaged with (at the most) simple tasks. Cooling indicates an
understanding of this principal, insisting of her students a level of personal
quietness to allow their young minds to grasp a level of aural complexity
greater than what has been previously experienced thus far in their lives.
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A study of the use of music by elementary school counsellors in Virginia
(Bixler 2001) revealed strong existing beliefs among counsellors that music
had the potential to play a powerful role in their work, mainly in reducing
stress and anxiety, and in encouraging self expression; in other words,
promoting emotional health. Interestingly, these counsellors reported
inadequate or non-existent training in the use of music as a counselling
tool, and expressed a desire to get training if it was available. Whilst this
study overwhelmingly advocated the benefits of music in counselling
situations, there was very little description on the actual music activities
undertaken.
Bixler presented a perplexing matter. The U.S National Advisory Mental
Health Council (1990) has estimated that between 15% and 22% of school
children suffer from mental health issues. Given the common knowledge
that mental and psychiatric institutions have been using music therapy for
years in mood and behaviour modification, why has it (and is it) being
ignored as a resource in schools?
Student well-being is also a theme in the use of music at the University of
Massachusetts Dartmouth (Barber and Barber 2005). Acknowledging the
stress accompanying the transition from secondary to tertiary education,
the “Jazz for Success” program uses smooth jazz as BM during orientation
lectures on college life to first-year students. Their research suggests that
students relax more with BM music, which reduces negative emotions. The
University of Massachusetts Dartmouth seek to implement musical
intervention wherever possible to “restore, maintain, and improve
emotional, physical, physiological, spiritual health and well being” (ibid,
p.5).
A unique educational program entitled “Boys Business” (Smith 2004)
adopts learning in music to bond and engage Northern Territory boys from
the middle school years. The program involves more than listening alone –
singing songs is integral, but the premise is that the sharing of music can
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Michael Griffin 2006
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enhance bonding and fellowship in boys from diverse social and cultural
backgrounds. The program outcomes are not intentionally musical but
designed to address “oral and emotional literacy” (p.1) and in this regard
has been judged an outstanding success.
5. The problem with music selection in prior
research
Unfortunately, there is a problem with many research investigations into
the effects of BM on human behaviour and response, and that is in the
selection of the music for the research.
It is speculative to contend that difference in human response is governed
by musical genre, yet time and again, research has treated the selection of
musical examples with an ignorance and casualness bordering on
contempt for the complexities of music.
As is discussed in section 3 of this paper, it is the individual constituents of
music and their unique combinations which affect response, not a
summarising label (genre). For example, Davidson and Powell (1986) used
‘easy listening’ music for their experiments, and described it as having “a
melodic melody line”, consonant chords, a “non-percussive” beat,
traditional and lush orchestration predominantly strings and wind (p.30).
This clumsy attempt to describe a musical genre has excluded discussion
regarding other important music constituents such as tempo and volume
and never quantifies what a ‘melodic’ melody is, or ‘non-percussive’ beat
is. Furnham and Allass (1999) rightly say that “(describing music by genre)
does nothing to indicate the exact characteristics…in stimulation or
distraction” (pg 30). There is so much musical variety within genres such
as classical and jazz, that it is essential –particularly for research - to
define music in terms of its component constituents and characteristics.
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Despite this acknowledgement by Furnham and Allass, they fall into the
same trap and worse. In their 1999 study on musical distraction, they used
a panel of six ‘experts’ to select music. However, the music was limited to
only three ‘contemporary’ pieces, and their definition of a music expert was
minimum grade 5 theory. Grade 5 theory is a standard reached largely by
school children, entails no study on the function of music and could hardly
be considered in any way expert. In the final discussion on their
experiments, they admit their music selection may have been too narrow
for this study. This limits the usefulness of their findings.
Likewise Kellaris and Kent (1992) embark on an experiment to ascertain
the effect of music on temporal perceptions. Music selection compromises
his findings because
1. He does not prescribe a conventional definition or application of
‘atonal’ music
2. His use of original ‘pop’ style does not describe the musical
constituents
3. Youth-orientated retail music has a very particular commercial
function* which Kellaris doesn’t explain, and I argue against his
claim that this ‘youth music’ is appropriate for the 20-40yr age
bracket of his subjects.
4. His listening condition was forced exposure as opposed to
background listening. Active listening and BM are not the same. His
methodology does not appear congruent with the aim of the study.
*In youth retail settings, BM is often played to reinforce a sub-culture, and
keep parents out of the shop.
In their “Jazz for Success” program at University of Massachusetts
Dartmouth, Barber and Barber (2005) settled on a ‘smooth jazz’ format
believing the musical constituents (soft, melodic, cool, unobtrusive, slick,
polished and relaxing) could help ease the stress and anxiety often
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33
encountered by first-year university students. This at least has implied
musical structures. Smooth jazz is a jazz subset of low listening-load
constituents such as slow to moderate tempi, narrow pitch and volume
range and simple textures.
Hallam and Price (1998) selected music based on previous scholarly
recommendations, and then further tested appropriateness with a separate
group of student responses to the effects of the music. In this study, the
selection of music went through a more rigorous process.
In reviewing investigations into the general effects of background music,
Oldham, Cummings et al. (1995) suggest that a failure of research is to find
genre superiority in music. This is not a failure; the wrong question is being
asked. People don’t respond to genre, they respond to tempo, modality,
texture, melodic direction, pitch, harmony, timbre and dynamic control.
Appropriate combinations of these music constituents for a desired
behavioural result are present in folk, classical, country, pop and jazz
music.
In business, Areni (2003) says “(the) use of atmospheric music is
still…dominated by managerial intuition rather than scientific evidence”
(p.162). Similarly, it does seem peculiar how little credence has been given
to using musical expertise in the selection of music for research purposes.
These examples demonstrate that many researchers’ musical choices are
based on intuition and personal preference rather than expert advice, an
observation that could lead to further original enquiry
.
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6. Discussion and conclusion
I. Summary
In conclusion, research drawing from manifold disciplines confirms that BM
does affect human behaviour and response.
Can the use of BM enhance a learning environment? Yes. But this will be
dependant on its judicious use and facilitation, and that means educators
will need to be equipped with fundamental knowledge of music psychology.
A summary of the positive effects of BM as determined through research in
education, health, consumerism and the work-place is listed below, given
that some descriptions are much the same but from different perspectives.
BM can
1. affect mood state
2. alter perception of time and space
3. affect physiological change
4. reduce stress and anxiety
5. enhance relaxation
6. cause arousal
7. motivate
8. be associated with product
9. enhance message reception
10. reduce noise distraction
11. aid concentration
12. aid memorisation
13. increase on task performance
14. enhance creativity
15. increase the enjoyment of mental and physical activity
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Does music listening make us smarter? Since the now famous spatial
reasoning experiments using the music of Mozart by Frances Rauscher
(1993), this question is still being debated. From the studies and findings in
this review, it would appear that music listening in itself does not directly
make us smarter, but that its effects are all about arousal. This arousal
enhances levels of on task performance and readiness to engage in short-
term learning projects.
The educator/teacher/facilitator/user needs to be aware that
1. listening to music carries with it a cognitive processing load
2. the diversity of different music styles cause different
psychological effects
3. music is suitable or unsuitable for use as BM depending on its
constituents
4. tempo, tonality and volume are the three constituents which
require the most scrutiny
II. Global goals of education
“The basic purpose of education is to bring individuals closer to the goal of
optimal use of talent and enjoyment of life” (Gagne and Briggs 1979). Re-
phrasing Gagne and Briggs, if educators can make learning easier, more
successful and more enjoyable, then we should. A report from the OECD
(2002) states that one in six students hate school (not to be confused with
hating learning). An important ingredient of a healthy childhood is
enjoyment, lack of which can result in stress. This stress interferes with
brain circuitry and builds up hormone levels all making learning more
difficult (Chandler 2006).
BM can assist in making education easier, more successful and more
enjoyable. If we achieve this, then we head towards another important
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educational goal: to develop a love of learning which will remain with
students for a lifetime (Webb 2001). BM can contribute to a quality
education which addresses the unique abilities of each student, and
contains a “positive emotional experience” (ibid). The acknowledgement of
individual learning, and the well-being of each student is central to South
Australian education policy in their future directions document (DECS
2005).
III. Applying BM to the learning environment
But let us consider the learning environment; it is not just restricted to the
classroom, it is all around us. Every interaction is a potential learning
situation, and this happens in
- the classroom
- the school corridor
- the library
- the schoolyard
- the canteen
- the gymnasium
- the home
Any attempt by me to suggest a range of possible applications for the use
of BM in the learning environment will soon be augmented by creative
minds and some team brain-storming. Also, educators should be
encouraged to engage in their own action research to discover what works
for their students and their particular circumstances. However, I list some
starting points below and for the benefit of summary, repeat some ideas
already utilised and acknowledged in previous studies listed in this paper.
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Student congregation at the beginning and end of the
school day
o Cheerful music that has momentum. Perhaps moderately fast
baroque movements.
The general classroom
o Music to match the cognitive task demand in order to
appropriate arousal levels required for optimal learning.
The teaching of history or any emotionally charged events
o Music to support negative or positive historical facts - see
pg. 9.
Physical education
o The use of music to increase fitness work-rate, lower exertion
perception and enhance enjoyment (see pg. 22). I have
witnessed this on a whole school basis in Qingdao, China –
morning exercise for 1500 on the school oval with very loud
and fast music.
Sporting contests
o Sports psychology increasingly uses music to motivate
athletes. Some schools already use music in this way.
Moving students between lessons and after breaks
o March music (120 bpm, duple meter) to keep the students
moving.
The library/private study
o Students’ to be educated on the effects of musical listening
on arousal and hence choose ‘study’ music accordingly. A
library of appropriate study music to be retained and made
available.
Pre and post school assembly
o Music to set an appropriate ambience, and to encourage
movement with a minimum of fuss.
Celebrating achievement
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o In the assembly (or other) setting where student
achievements require due reward.
The canteen line
o Music to alter waiting perception and encourage patience.
The school dining room
o Music to encourage conversation and appropriate behaviour.
Reception telephone on hold systems
o Music to alter waiting perception and to promote the school
ethos. If possible, the use of music recorded by students.
Reception waiting area
o Again, music to alter waiting perception and encourage
positive reflection.
Strengthen school vision statements
o When opportunities arise, repeating a musical piece which
conveys school ethos, or choosing a song with words
representative of school philosophy.
Withdrawal room
o Some schools operate a withdrawal room system; a form of
punishment where the offending student is solitary in a quiet
room for the purpose of self-reflection. Music can be used to
enhance the introspection process.
Counselling
o Music for reducing stress and anxiety, and encouraging self-
expression (see pg.30).
The quality of home life and the quality of relationships that children have
with significant adults affects children’s well-being and hence their learning
(Webb 2001). BM can be used in the home to open up lines of
communication, promote morning alertness and readiness, assist in
household chores and make dining experiences more pleasant and social.
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IV. The future
As the growth projections predict (Lo 2005), the ubiquitous portable music
player is here to stay. This issue of ‘ipod’ use in schools is presently
discussed and debated in educational circles, with teachers searching for
understanding and consequently forming policy. We need to base new
policies from an informed position.
Students want to learn. The successful learning which leads to ‘flow’ is one
of life’s great joys. With teenagers spending an average of 3-hours per day
listening to music (Hallam, Price et al. 2002) we have a duty to educate
parents and their children as to the effects and implications of listening to
music during study.
Just as the learning environment is greater than the classroom, so is
instruction greater than teaching alone. The savvy educator knows that a
high performance learning environment is representationally rich, that
students learn in different ways and through the strength of their senses.
To engage the learner means to understand his/her unique learning profile.
Learning is an individual acquisition. Music can motivate and inspire
learning, encourage reflection, reveal the affect. “Achievers in life use
inspiration and motivation to overcome barriers” (Webb 2001).
I believe that the greatest benefit in the integration of music in learning
environments is through the enhancement of emotional intelligence. This
newly considered area of educational importance is yet to be fully
embraced by educators, but with increasing numbers of educational
institutions embracing the emotional and social well-being of students as a
priority, it warrants high status. The 21
st
Century worker requires new
competencies based around emotional intelligence. Technical skills are not
enough, life skills are required (Microsoft 2003). If BM can play a part in
facilitating critical thinking skills, creative problem solving and more
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40
effective interpersonal communication, then it has a place in a contextually
rich learning environment. Music, the most emotive of the arts, awakens in
us our emotional self.
Can music listening deliver to us more intangible benefits of great value
such as a moral code?
Beethoven thought so: “I should despise a world which does not
understand that music is a higher revelation than all wisdom and
philosophy.”
Plato thought so: “Music is a moral law. It gives soul to the universe, wings
to the mind, flight to the imagination, and charm and gaiety to life and to
everything.”
The Unknown Poet thought so: “Music speaks what cannot be expressed,
soothes the mind and gives it rest, heals the heart and makes it whole,
flows from heaven to the soul.”
Presently, the world of neuroscience is providing great impetus for new
understandings on the affect and nature of music.
“New findings and technical breakthroughs are often accomplished only by
bridging the gap between completely different disciplines…” (Koizumi
2001). Are we on the cusp of new learning areas in music-science, music
psychology or music and EQ? Should new units in these areas be
developed for the school curriculum?
Neuroscience is rapidly enhancing our understanding of how the brain
works, and how the senses affect brain operation. These studies are
debunking old understandings. For example, music is no longer considered
a right-brain activity but a whole brain activity (Reimer 2004); and Lehr
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(1998) “Music more fully involves brain functions in both hemispheres than
any other activity that researchers studied”. Again, “Nothing activates as
many areas of the brain as music…both hemispheres light up like a pinball
machine” (Hodges 2006).
Perhaps this explains why music seems to be such an integrating
benefactor within the human condition. Music is an emotional, intellectual,
spiritual and physical activity that engages the whole brain. The human is
naturally musical and hence capable of responding to music. With new
understandings emerging from this array of multi-disciplinary study on the
positive effects of music listening on our total well-being, the future of
music in education looks bright.
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7. Reference List
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Author-Unknown (n.d). The Nature of Learning, Kansas State Department
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Barber, N. L and J. L. Barber (2005). "Jazz for Success: Alternative Music
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Bendall, A. (1994). "Music, Function and Changes." Innerface International
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Bixler, L. (2001). The Status of the use of Music as a Counselling tool by
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Brodsky, W. (2005). "The effects of metronomic pendular adjustment
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Caldwell, C. and S. A. Hibbert (2002). "The influence of music tempo and
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Carey, J. (2002). Brain Facts: A Primer on the Brain and Nervous System.
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Chandler, J. (2006). Spare the early education dollar…spoil the child. The
Age. Melbourne.
Cheek, J. R., L. J. Bradley, et al. (2003). Using Music Therapy Techniques
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Coloma, D. and B. Kleiner (2005). "Can music be used in business?"
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Cooling, C. (2006). Background music, drawing and reflection. M. Griffin.
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