Microsoft Word - COMPARATIVE VERTEBRATE ANATOMY

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COURSE CODE: ZOO366

COURSE TITLE: ComparativeVertebrateAnatomy

NUMBER OF UNITS: 3Units

COURSE DURATION: 3Hoursperweek

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Course Coordinator:

 DrGabrielAdewunmiDedeke,B.Sc.,M.Sc.,Ph.D.

Email: [email protected]

Office Location: RoomA102,COLNAS

Other Lecturer: DrOke,B.Sc.,M.Sc.,Ph.D.

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MODULE TOPIC

1. GENERALINTRODUCTION:

‐WhatisAnatomy?

‐VertebrateBodyPlan

‐PrincipalBodyAxes

‐PrincipalAnatomicalPlanes

‐TheBigFourVertebrateCharacteristics

‐FateofGermlayers&Extraembryonicmembrane

2. SYSTEMSFORSUPPORTPROTECTION&MOVEMENT:

‐IntegumentarySystem(Integumentproper&derivatives)

‐Skeletal System [Connective tissues, joints, dermal skeleton, endoskeleton (axial &

appendicularskeletons)]

‐Muscular System [muscular tissues, Parietal Musculature (hypobranchial, eye muscles,

appendicular musculature, diaphragm), Branchial musculature, Visceral musculature,

Dermalmusculature)

3. INTEGRATINGSYSTEMS:

1. NERVOUS SYSTEM: [CNS (Spinal cord & Brain), PNS (spinal  nerves & cranial nerves‐

acousticolateralissystem,branchialnerves,specialsensorynerves,others)

‐AutonomicN.S.

‐SympatheticN.S.

‐ParasympatheticN.S.

2.ENDOCRINEORGANS:(Pituitary,Thyroid,Parathyroid,Adrenalglands,Testes,Ovaries,

Placenta)

3.SENSEORGANS:

COURSE DETAILS:

COURSE CONTENT:

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‐Sight(eye);Hearing&equilibrium(ear),Olfactory(Nose),Taste (tastebuds),Touch

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4. REPRODUCTIVESYSTEM:

‐Reproductive Organs [Female organs (ovaries, oviducts), Male organs (tes tes, male

ducts,copulatoryorgans,spermtypes

PRACTICALSONMODULES1‐4

5. RESPIRATORYSYSTEM:

1.RespiratoryOrgans(Nasalpassages,Pharyngealpouches&gills,swimbladder,lungs&

airducts,trachea&bronchi

2. Respiration Types ( Pulmonary, Branchial, Cutaneous, Buccopharyngeal, Rectum &

Cloaca)

3. Pharyngeal Derivatives (Non respiratory – thyroid, thymus & parathyroid glands,

tonsils,middleear&Eustachiantube)

6. DIGESTIVESYSTEM:(GENERALSTRUCTURE)

‐Mouthanditsassociatedstructures(lips,oralglands,tongue,teeth)

‐Pharynx – Oesophagus, Stomach (types & function), Intestine (differentiation into

distinctregions),Digestiveglands(liver,pancreas)

7. EXCRETORYSYSTEM:

‐MajorExcretoryOrgan[Kidney&types–Ar chinephros,Anamniote k idneys(Pronephros

&Opisthonephros),AmnioteKidneys(Mesonephros&Metanephros)

‐Saltglands

8. CIRCULATORYSYSTEM:

‐ Hearts(morphogenesisandtypes)

‐ Blood Vascular System (closed type), Lymphatic system, Blood & lymph, Bloo d

formingtissues

‐ ArterialSystem(AorticArches)

‐ Venoussystem

‐ PortalCirculation(hepatic,renal,hypop hysio)

‐ FetalCirculation

PRACTICALSONMODULES5–8

CONTINOUSASSESSMENTTEST(CAT)‐ALLMODULES

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Thisisacompulsorycoursefor300levelstudentsofZoologyintheDepartmentofBiological

Sciences.Studentsarethereforerequiredtoparticipateinallmodulesofthecourseandthe

practicalsessions.Studentsmusthaveaminimumof70%attendancetobeabletowritethe

finalexamination.

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1. Kent,G.C.ComparativeAnatomyoftheVertebrates.StLouis,Toronto,TheC.V.Mosby

Company,1983.

2. Alexander,R.M.TheChordates.Cambridge,England.CambridgeUniversityPress.1975.

3. Hildebrand,M.AnalysisofVertebratestructure.NewYork,JohnWileyandSons.Inc.1974.

COURSE REQUIREMENTS:

READING LIST:

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4. Kardong,K.V.Vertebrates3

ed.Boston,McGrawHill.2002.

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GENERALINTRODUCTION:

WhatisAnatomy?

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Anatomyisthestudyofthestructureoflivingorganisms,inthiscaseanimal,orthedescriptionofthe

parts of any organised structure. The word anatomy means cutting up – the method by which the

studyofthestructureoflivingthingsismadepossible.

In general scientific literature,

it is virtually synonymous with morphology, the scientific study of

shape and structural change among groups  of organisms (comparative anatomy) or in the

development of the individual (morphogenesis), and including microscopic as well as macroscopic

methodsofstudy.

The various kinds of anatomy are definedby their limitation

to some particularaspects ofstructure

(e.g. Surface anatomy) or to the use of some particular technique (e.g. Radiological anatomy). The

different kinds of anatomy identified based on the ab ove are Applied Anatomy, this is anatomy

studied in relation to some practical problem, such as the diagnosis and treatment

of diseases

(medicalorsurgicalanatomy).Descriptiveanatomy,anatomylimitedtotheverbaldescriptionofthe

partsofanorganism,usuallyappliedonlytohumananatomy.Grossanatomy/Macroscopicanatomy,

anatomydealingwiththestudyofstructuressofarasitcanbeseenwiththenakedeye.Microscopic

anatomy, the

 study of the minute structure of organism or histology. Morbid anatomy/Pathological

anatomy,thestudyofthestructuralchangeswh ich canbeseenindiseasedorgans,tissuesorpartsof

thebody.Regionalanatomy,thestudyofthestructureofaparticularregionofanorganisme.gofthe

upper limb

or of the neck including all the systems which may be represented in it and their

relationshiptoeach other.Surfaceanatomy,thestudy oftheformandmarkingof the bodysurface

especially in their relationship to underlying structures. Systematic anatomy, the separate study of

thestructureofparticularsystems

e.g. nervoussystemorvascularsystem,withoutlimitationtoany

oneregionoftheorganism.

GeneralFeatures/VertebrateBodyPlan:

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ThesegroupofChordates,alsocalledCraniatabecauseofthepossessionofsomeformofcraniumand

someformofvertebrae, hencethe nameVertebrate.Vertebratehave thecapacitytoliveindifficult

environmentsduetothepossessionofcertainspeci alfeatures:

Body Division:

 There is tagmatization of the body into a distinct Head, trunk, tail and appendages.

Theheadbearsaskeletalskullwhichusuallybearsthejawaswellasspecialsensoryorgans,suchas

eye,ear,nostrilandtongue.Thefrontalendofthenervoussystemisdifferentiatedintoanelaborate

brainandislocatedwithintheskull, which servesasa protective boxaround it.The specialsensory

organsorreceptorsmentionedearlierfunctioninassociationwiththebrain.Throughthesereceptors

thevertebratesareabletorespondtomorevariedaspectsoftheenvironmentthanotheranimalsare

able to.

 The brain is primarily concerned with sensory and motor functions and preside over all the

bodilyfunctionsandgivethevertebratethe“drive”whichisoneoftheirmostcharacteristicfeature.

Trunk

: Consist of the thorax and abdomen. Bears the body cavity/coelom, body wall/s kin/parietal

peritoneum lining, muscle, vertebral column, Visceral peritoneum via dorsal and ventral

mesenteries/retroperitoneal visceral organs/viscera/ribs. The ribs which are joined to the vertebrae

LECTURE NOTES

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toformtheribcagewhichhelpstoprotecttheheartandlung.Theabdomenoccupiesalargeportion

ofthecoelomandcontai ns organsresponsiblefordigestionandstorageoffood.Bodymusculatureis

onregional‐skeleton‐orientedbasisratherthanonlayerbasis.

Neck

: Narrow extension of trunk/lacks coelom and primarily consists of vertebrae, muscles, spinal

cord,nerves,elongatedtubessuchasoesophagus,bloodvessels,lymphatics,trachea.

Tail:

Beginsattheanusorvent.Exclusivelyacaudalcontinuationofbodywallmuscles,axialskeleton,

nervesandbloodvessels.

Others

: The pharynx of most vertebrates is small and respiratory in function. The blood circulatory 

systemistheclosedtypeanddouble.Respiratoryorganscouldbegills,lungsorwellvascularisedskin.

The excretory system consists of mesodermal funnels, leading primarily from the coelom to the

exterior and the organ responsible

 for excretion is kidney, which also play a major role in

osmoregulation.

Development of these systems in vertebrates allow the expenditure of great amount of energy per

unit weight of animal so that quite extravagant devices  can be use d, allowing survival under

conditionsthatwouldotherwisenotsupportlife.

Principal

BodyAxes:

1. Anterioposterior(Longitudinal)axis

2. Dorsoventralaxis

3. Left‐rightaxis

Withreferenceto1.and2.,Structuresatoneenddiffersfromthatattheotherend.

With reference to 3., structures at both sides are identical (mirror images) – Bilateral symmetry is 

impliedhere.

PrincipalAnatomicalPlanes/Sections:



Twoaxesdefineaplane:

1. TransversePlane:establishedbytheleft‐rightanddorsoventralaxesandacut/sectioninthis

planeisaCrossSectionortransversesection(TS)

2. FrontalPlane:establishedbylefttorightandlongitudinalaxesandcut/sectioninthisplaneis

aFrontalSection

3. SagittalPlane:establishedbydorsoventralandlongitudinalaxesandacuthereistheSagittal

Section.SectionsparalleltothesagittalplaneareParasagittal.

Metamerism:



Thisisbasicserialrepetitionofbodystructuresinthelongitudinalaxis

‐ Clearlyexpressedinembryos

‐ Retainedinmanyadultsystems

‐ Skin not metameric – if you strip skin in Fishes, Amphibians (other than anurans) and some

reptiles,aseriesofmusclesegmentsareseen.

‐ Serial

arrangementofvertebrae,ribs,spinalnerves,embryonickidney tubulesandsegmental

arteriesandveinsarefurtherexpressionofmetamerisminvertebrates.

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TheBigfourVertebrateCharacteristics:

(refertoyournotesonChordates).

Vertebratespossessfourdefinitivecharacteristics(thefirst3areChordatecharacteristics )

1. ANotochord

2. APharynx

3. ADorsalHollowNervousSystem

4. VertebralColumn

ThereareotherSatelliteCharacteristicsnotnecessarilyuniqueamongvertebrates.

FateofGermLayersandExtraembryonicMembrane:

(refertoyournotesonEmbryology).

Alltissuesandorgansofthevertebratebodycouldtracetheirorigintooneormoreembryonicgerm

layers.

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SYSTEMSFORSUPPORT,PROTECTIONANDMOVEMENT:

ThesystemsinvolvedherearetheIntegumentarySystem,(Integumentproper&derivatives),Skeletal

System [Connective tissues, joints, dermal skeleton, 

endoskeleton (axial & appendicular skeletons)],

Muscular System [muscular tissues, Parietal Musculature (hypobranchial, eye muscles, appendicular

musculature,diaphragm),Branchialmusculature,Visceralmusculature,Dermalmusculature).



INTEGRATINGSYSTEMS:

Integrating systems consists of the NERVOUS SYSTEM which is made up of Central Nervous System

(Spinal cord & Brain), Peripheral Nervous System‐Autonomic N.S., Sympathetic

N.S. and

ParasympatheticN.S.(spinalnerves &cranialnerves‐acousticolateralissystem,branchialnerves,special

sensory nerves, others), ENDOCRINE ORGANS made up of Pituitary, Thyroid, Parathyroid, Adrenal

glands, Testes, Ovaries, Placenta and SENSE ORGANS consisting of Sight (eye); Hearing & equilibrium

(ear),Olfactory(Nose),Taste(tastebuds),Touch

URINOGENITAL SYSTEM: The vertebrate

 Excre tory (kidneys) and Reproductive Organs Female organs

(ovaries,oviducts),Maleorgans(testes,maleducts,copulatoryorgans,spermtypesinvertebrateshave

the same anatomical origin hence are taught together under one major heading. Though, these are

sometimesseparatedasdifferenttopicsforconvenience.

RESPIRATORYSYSTEM:ismadeupofRespiratory

Organs(Nasalpassages,Pharyngealpouches& gills,

swimbladder,lungs&airducts,trachea&bronchiandotherPharyngealDerivatives(Nonrespiratory–

thyroid,thymus&parathyroidglands,tonsils,middleear&Eustachiantube).

TherearedifferenttypesofRespirationamongVertebratessuchasPulmonary,Branchial,Cutaneous,

Buccopharyngeal,Rectum&

Cloaca.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM: Consists of the mouth and its associated structures (lips, oral glands, tongue,

teeth), Pharynx – Oesophagus, Stomach (types & function) , Intestine (differentiation into distinct

regions),Digestiveglands(liver,pancreas)



COMPARATIVEVERTEBRATEANATOMY‐PRACTICALCLASSES

http://www.unaab.edu.ng



MODULE1:VERTEBRATECHARACTERISTICS:(Refertoyournotes)

EXERCISE



1. TracewhatbecomesoftheNOTOCHORDinthedifferentvertebratesprovided.

2. WhatbecomesofthePHARYNGEALPOUCHESinthedifferentvertebratesprovided.

3. ExamineSpecimensA(dogfish),B(tilapia)

(i) WhatisthemodificationofthepelvicfinsofthemalesofspecimenAcalled?Makea

labelled

diagramofthepelvicfins.

(ii) WhichtypeofscalesarefoundonspecimenA?Makealabelleddiagramofthescales

(iii) InwhatpositionisthemouthlocatedonspecimenA?

(iv) Whatisthefateofthefirstgillslit?

(v) What type of Caudal fin is present

 in specimen A? Make a labelled diagram of the

caudalfin.

(vi) SpecimenAbelongstoClass______________________

(vii) WherearethegillslitslocationinspecimenB.Makealabelleddiagramofthegillslits

inspecimenB

(viii) Whichtypeofscalearefoundontheskinofspecimen

B.Makealabelleddiagramof

thescales.

(ix) Which type ofcaudal fin is present in specimen B. Make a labelled diagram of the

caudalfin

(x) SpecimenBbelongstoClass______________________________



MODULE2:TERMSFORLOCATION/DIRECTION:Examinethediagramsprovidedandanswerthe

questions below using the

terms supplied CRANIAL, CAUDAL, SUPERIOR, INFERIOR,

DORSAL,POSTERIOR,ANTERIOR,VENTRAL,LATERAL(Refertoyournotes)

EXERCISE

:

a. Inthecattheearsare________________________inlocationwhilethissamestructurein 

manare____________________________inlocation.

b. A structure towards the tail of cat is _____________________________ while the same

structureinmanislocated__________________________________.

c. The spinal cord in cat is ___________________________ in location, while

 it is

___________________________inman.

d. The nipples, ribs and sternum are ____________________________ locatedin cat, while

thesesamestructuresarelocated______________________________inman.

e. Thelimbsarelocated__________________________________inbothcatandman



MODULE3: PLANESANDSECTIONSOFTHEBODY:Thesetwotermsarecloselyrelated.

Asectionis

a cut surface, while a plane is the abstract space where a section is cut through. A

section/plane is defined by any two axes of the body. SAGITTAL SECTION: A

longitudinal, vertical section from dorsal to ventral that passes through the median

longitudinalaxisofthebody.

TRANSVERSEORCROSSSECTIONisacutacrossthebody

from dorsal to ventral and at right angles to the longitudinal axis. FRONTAL or

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

CORONALSECTIONisone lying in the longitudinal axis and passing horizontally from

sidetoside.(Checkyournotes)

EXERCISE



a. Using the definitions above, cut a sagittal, transverse and frontal section through the

trunkandtailregionofthespecimenC(fish).

b. Makealabelleddiagramofthecutsurface.

c. Examine the mammals provided (specimen D‐rats, rabbits). What constitutes the facial

regionofthehead?

Whatconstitutesthecranialregionofthehead?

e. Whatarethecoveringoftheeyesontheoutsidecalled.Ifthiscoveringarecutawayina

livingmammalwhathappenstotheeyeandwhy?

f. Whereistheearlocatedonthemammalsandwhatistheadvantage

ofthepositioning?

g. Whatisthemostconspicuousintegumentaryderivativeinthemammalsprovided?What

functiondoesitperform?

h. Eyelashes(cilia)aremodificationsofhairlocatedonthe____________________________

i. Identifythebrachium,antebrachiumandmanusinthepectoralappendage

j. Identifyfemur,crusandpesinthe

pelvicappendageMs.



MODULE4: INTEGUMENT(DERIVATIVES)

FISH:Majorderivativesofthefishintegumentarechromatophores,scatteredmucous

glandcellsandhardeneddermalstructures(bonyscales).(Checkyournotes)

EXERCISE



a. Remove the skin of the bony fish provided and observe under the low and higher

magnificationsofthemicroscope

b. Identifywhatyousee.Makealabelleddiagram.

c. Runyourhandanteriorlyoverthesurfaceofthedogfishprovide d. Whatcanyoufeel?

d. Usea handlens

toexamine theskinofthe dogfish.Whatdo yousee?AndWhatarethe

tinyminutestructurescalled?

MAMMALS:Theintegumentofmammalshasmanyderivatives.Therearemanyglandcells–alveolar‐

shapedsebaceousglands,tubularsweatglands(sudoriferousglands)andmammaryglands.

EXERCISE



a. Whatarethemodificationsontheedgesofeyelidscalled?

b. Whatarethemodificationsaroundthesnoutofrabbit,ratandcatcalled

c. Whatarethemodificationsontheupperlipofmancalled?

d. Whatarethemodification onthechinofmancalled?

e. Make

alabelleddiagramtoshowthefirsttwomodifications

f. Stretchoutyourfingers.Observeandmakealabelleddiagramofyournails.N:B The

wordnailisderivedfromtheGreekwordungulae

g. Drawandlabelthehoovesprovided

h. Whatdoesyournailnailshaveincommonwith

thehooves?



http://www.unaab.edu.ng



MODULE5:SKELETALSYSTEM(PREPARATIONOFVERTEBRATESKELETON):Skeleton/bonepreparation

isbothtechnicalandartisticespeciallyif theendresultistobearticulatedskeleton.Inthis

practicalsessionusematurespecimensofrat,cat,bird(lifeorfreshlykilled).Iflifeyou

needtosacrifice(kill)theanimalas

humanelyaspossible.

1. Skinanddismemberthespecimen,removingtheheadandlegs

2. Cutofflargermassesoffleshfromthebonesasmuchaspossible

3. Immerse thewholes pecimeninsimmeringwaterorinasoapsolution

N:B:PreparationofSoapsolution

Ammonia(strong) 150ml

HardSoap

 75g

PotassiumNitrate 12g

Water 2000ml

4. Removethespecimenfromthesolutionuntoadissectingboard

5. Brushorscrapeawaytherestoftheflesh

N:B:Ifyouareinterestedinarticulatedskeleton(byligaments).Checktheskeleton

frequentlytobesurethatthemusclesaresoftenough

tobescrapedoff.Ifyouare

interestedindisarticulatedskeletonthenthereisnoneedforthisconstantcheck.

6. Degreasethebonesforadayinturpentine,benzeneorCCl

(thisispoisonoussocare

shouldbetaken)

7. BleachthebonesforadayortwoinHydrogenPeroxide.

8. Aftersatisfactorycleaningandbleachingstretchoutormounttheskeletoninthedesired

positionbeforethepreparationdries.

ForfurtherassistancechecktheSTEPBYSTEPGUIDETO

BONEARTICULATIONalreadygiventoyou.



MODULE6: SKELETAL SYSTEM: The SOMATIC or endoskeleton of vertebrates consists of AXIAL

SKELETON (Skull, vertebral column, ribs, sternum and skull) + APPENDICULAR

SKELETON(skeletonoftheappendages).

EXERCISE1:SKULL



a. Examine the skullsprovided.Identifythe bones present intheskullsofcrocodile, rabbit,

monkey.Makelabelleddiagramsoffrontal,lateral,dorsal,ventralandposteriorviewsof

theskulls.

b. Identify premaxilla, maxilla, nasal, prefrontal, frontal, incisive, lacrimal, postorbital,

ethmoid, temporal, coronoid process, parietal, squamosal, quadrotojugal, occipital,

palatine, pterygoid,

quadrate, tympanic bulla, foramen magnum, foramen rotundum,

foramenovale.

c. Whatisthepurposeofthisstructure?

d. Whatisthepurposeoftheforamenmagnum?

e. Using a saw, cut a sagittal section through the midline of the skulls. Make a labelled

diagram of this view. Identify cribiform plate and

 nasal conchae (turbinates). What are

theirfunctionsinthevertebrates?

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

f. Examine the lower jaw of rabbit and monkey. Make a labelled  dorso‐lateral and lateral

viewsofthelowerjaw.CompareandContrastthetwolowerjaws. 



EXERCISE 2: VERTEBRAL COLUMN:

 These are the bones in the longitudinal axis of the body of

vertebratesexcludingtheskull,ribs,sternumandgirdles.

a. Killthespecimen(fishandreptile)provided.Teaseasmuchofthemusclesawayfromthe

vertebralcolumnaspossible.Separatethebonesofthevertebralcolumn.

b. What

arethesebonescalled?

c. Makelabelleddiagramofoneofthebonefromthetrunkoffishandreptile.

d. Identifythesimilaritiesanddifferencesnotedamongthebones.

e. Separate an intact vertebral column of rat into cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral and

caudal

f. Make labelled diagram of one

 bone from each section, identifying transverse processes,

Diapophyses and parapophyses, prezygapophyses and postzygapophyses. Note

similaritiesanddifferences.

g. Killthespecimen(bird)provided.Dissectandteasethemuscles awayfromtheskeleton.

h. Make a labelled diagram of the lateral view of the intact skeleton provided showing

arrangementofthe

bonyelements.

i. Locatetheintervertebraldiscs.Relateitsfunctiontoitslocation.

j. Differentiatebetweenatlasandaxiscervical.

k. Identify the two girder structures, synsacrum and sternum (withkeel). With the aid of a

labelled diagram, trace their line of opposing force to show how they help to provide



balanceforthebird.

l. Using a saw cut a T.S. of the long bones of the rabbit and bird. With the aid of a

magnifyinglens,makealabelleddiagramofthecutsurface.



EXERCISE3:RIBS:

TheboneoftheribiscalledCOSTA(=pl–COSTAE)

a. Examinethemountedskeletonsofcat,rabbitandbird

b. Howmanyribsarepresentineach?

c. Howmanyofthetheirribsaretrueribs(vertebrosternal)?

d. Howmanyoftheirribsarevertebrocostalribs? 

e. How

manyoftheirribsarevertebralribs?

f. Makelabelleddiagramsofdifferenttypesofribs



EXERCISE4:STERNUM:

ThebonyelementsofthesternumarecalledSTERNEBRAE

a. Draw and label the sterna bone of the mounted skeletons provided. Identify the

MANUBRIUM,THEBODY,XIPHISTERNUM,XIPHOIDPROCESS.

b. Inmanyma mmalstheclaviclesofthepectoralgirdlearticulatewiththecranialendofthe

manubriumbutnotincat.

Whatadvantagewillthisgivetothecatduringlocomotion?



EXERCISE5:GIRDLE

:Thegirdleprovidesupportfortheappendagesandbraceitagainstthevertebral

column.ThetwotypesofgirdlesarePECTORALANDPELVICGIRDLES.

http://www.unaab.edu.ng



a. Gently tease out the pectoral and pelvic girdle and fin of fish provided. Make labelled

diagrams

b. Make labelled diagram s of Scapula with the forelimb attached to it from the mounted

skeletonofdogprovided.

c. Draw the lateral view of the pelvis showing illium, ischium, pubis, acetabulum and

obturatorforamen.

d. Draw the amterior view of the pelvis showing the pubic symphysis. What is the

importanceofthisjointinvertebrates.



EXERCISE6:APPENDAGES:



a. Identify the following bones humerus, ulna and radius. Give reasons for your

identification.

b. Make a labelled diagram of the caudal view of humerus and radius and lateral view of

ulna.

c. Identifythefemur,tibiaandfibulawithreasons

d. Makealabelleddiagramofthecaudalview

offemur;cranialviewoftibiaandlateralview

offibula.



EXERCISE7:MANUS(HAND):



a. StudytheManus(hand)oftheratorcat

b. Make labelled diagrams showing the different regions and bones. The bones include the

following:

i. Carpus (Wrist)‐two rows of carpal bones; first row consist of large medial

SCAPHOLUNARincat(whichismadeupoffusedradiale,intermedium

anda central)

and smaller TRIQUETRUM (ulnare) and a large laterally placed caudally projecting

PISIFORM(sesamoidbone)

ii. Distalrow‐checkingfrommedialtolateral:TRAPEZIUM(distalcarpal1),TRAPEZOID

(distalcarpal2),CAPITATE(distalcarpal3)andHUMATE(distalcarpal4)

iii. Fivemetacarpals(theseformedthepalm)

iv. Phalanges

(freepartsoffingers).Thegeneralformulaofdigitsstartingatthethumbis

2,3,4,5,3.



EXERCISE8:PES(FOOT):



a. StudythePES(foot)oftheratorcat

b. Make labelled diagrams showing different regions and bones. The bones include the

following:

i. Tarsus (Ankle) – consisting of TALUS (articulates with tibia and fibula and is

homologous to tibiale, intermedium and one central); CALCANEOUS (heel bone –

fibulare,

caudallyprojecti ng);NAVICULAR(centrale,liesdistaltothetalus);

ii. A row of four bones distal to navicular and calcaneous which are arranged from

medialtolateralinthisfashion–MEDIALCUNEIFORM(distaltarsal 1);INTERMEDIATE

http://www.unaab.edu.ng



CUNEIFORM (distal tarsal 2); LATERAL CUNEIFORM (distal tarsal 3); CUBOID (distal

tarsal4)

iii. FiveelongatedMETATARSALS(soleofthefoot)

iv. PHALANGES(toes)–thefirsttoeislostinthecatanditsmetatarsalreducedtoasmall

nubbinofbonearticulatedwiththemedialcuneiform.



MODULE7:

LOCOMOTION

EXERCISE1:

FLIGHT:Thebirdandbataretheonlygroupofvertebratesthatpossessthetruepowerof

flight.

a. Examine thebirdandbatprovided carefully.Extendthe wingandstudyit inconjunction

withthediagramsprovide d.

b. Whatmodificationsoccurinthemanusforflighttooccur.

c. How

hasthegeneralbodyshapesuitedthesevertebratestothismodeoflocomotionviz

winddynamics.



EXERCISE 2: TERRESTRIAL LOCOMOTION:

 Terrestrial locomotion among vertebrates can be

categorizedintocrawling,hopping,walkingandrunning.Henceanimalsaregroupedaccordinglyinto

CRAWLERS, CURSORS (bipedal and quadripedal, WALKERS, TROTTERS), SALTATORS (JUMPERS –

pushing offtheground withthe hindlimbandlandingonthe forelimb),RICOCHETAL(pushingofthe

groundwithandlandingon

thehindlimbwitho utforelimbtouchingtheground).Furthermore,based

on their standing and walking posture they can be grouped into PLANTIGRADE (sole walker),

DIGITIGRADE(toewalkers)andUNGULIGRADE(hoofwalker)

a. Examinetheskeletonofcat,rabbit,dogandthediagramsprovided. 

b. Categorisetheirposturesandwalkingstyleandlocomotion

typeusingtheaboveterms



EXERCISE 3: GRASPING:

 If the thumb is removed will grasping be possible? Examine the diagrams

provided,whichofthehandswillenablethebearertoclimbwellandeasily?



MODULE 8: MUSCULAR SYSTEM:

 Muscles can be classified as STRIATED VS SMOOTH based on

direction of fibres or histological structure;VOLUNTARY VS INVOLUNTARY based on general type of

innervations and SKELETAL VS NON‐SKELETAL based on phylogeny or their mode of embryonic

developmentinlowervertebrates.

Forthepurposeofanatomicalstudiesthislast

methodofgroupingmusclesisadopted,hencewehave

a. SOMATICMUSCLES(Parietal)orskeletalmusclesassociatedwithoutertubesofthebodyand

are correlated to the somatic skeleton. The SOMATIC MUSCLES are further subdivided into

AXIALandAPPENDICULAR.

b. VISCERAL MUSCLES (Non‐skeletal) associated with the inner tube of

 the body and are

correlatedtothevisceralskeleton



EXERCISE1FISHES(TRUNKMUSCLES):

Thebulkofthemusculatureoffishesbelongtotheaxialgroup

ofsomaticmusclesofthetrunkandtail.

http://www.unaab.edu.ng



a. Remove a wide strip of skin from the posterior portion of the tail and another from

thefrontofthetrunkbetweenthepectoralandanteriordorsalfinsfrommiddorsalto

midventrallinesofthebody.

b. Studyandmakelabelleddiagramofthelateralviewofthe

groupofmyomeres

c. Removeonemyomereanddrawalabelleddiagramofit.

d. identifytheEPAXIALandHYPAXIALmusclesinyourmyomeres.

e. Howdoyouarriveatyouridentification?



EXERCISE2LIZARDS(TRUNKMUSCLES)



a. Killanddissectthelizardsandratsprovided.

 b. Removetheskinverycarefullytoexposethemusculatureandeyeball.Studythe

musculaturein‐situ(inplace)

c. Draw the lateral view of the skinned lizard, identifying the following muscles:

EXTERNAL OBLIQUE, INTERNAL OBLIQUE, TRANSVERSE ABDOMINAL MUSCLE,

TRAPEZIUS,DORSALIS

SCAPULAE,LATISSIMUSDORSI,



EXERCISE3MAMMALS–RATS,RABBITSorCATS:



a. Lay yourspecimenonitsbelly.Make amiddorsalincisionthroughtheskinextending

frombackoftheheadtothebaseofthetail.

b. Make additional cut (incision) from this cut above around the neck; around the tail,

anusandexternalgenitalsdownthelateralsurfaceof

eachlegandaroundthewrists

andankles.

c. Gradually separate the skin from the underlying muscles by tearing through the

superficialfasciawithapairofbluntforceps.

d. Notice the CUTANEOUS TRUNCI (brown line that adhere to the undersurface of skin

andCUTANEOUSBLOODVESSELSandNERVES(cutthem).



e. Complete your skinning and clean away excessive fat and superficial muscles of the

caudaltrunk.



EXERCISE4:HYPAXIALMUSCLESOFTHECAUDALTRUNK:



a. IdentifytheHYPAXIALmusclesofthecaudaltrunk:Themusclesareasfollows:

i. THORACOLUMBAR FASCIA (the wide tough sheet covering the lumbar regi on

ontheback).

ii. EXTERNALOBLIQUE(theoutermostlayeroftheabdominalmuscle)–itsfibres

extend obliquely caudally and ventrally to insert by an

APONEUROSIS along

thelengthoftheLINEAALBA.

III. INTERNAL OBLIQUE (lies beneath the external oblique) – fibres extend

obliquely ventrally and slightly cranial at right angles to the fibres of the

externalobliqueandleadintoawideaponeurosisthatinsertsalongthelinea

alba.

iv. TRANSVERSUS ABDOMINIS – fibres

 extend ventrally and slightly caudally to

insertalongthelineaalbabyanarrowaponeurosis

http://www.unaab.edu.ng



v. RECTUS ABDOMINIS – longitudinal band of muscle lying lateral to the

midventrallineundertheinternaloblique.

b. Makealabelleddiagramoftheventralviewoftheabdominalmusclelayerontheleft

sideofthecat

c. Whatarethefunctionsofthesem uscles?

EXERCISE5:PECTORALIS

GROUPOFMUSCLES:

a. identifythePECTORALISGROUPofmuscles:theyareasfollows:

i. CLEIDOBRACHIALISmuscle(frontofshouldercranialtothepectoralcomplex0

ii. PECTORA LISSUPERFICIALIS(PECTORALISMAJORinman)

iii. PECTORALISPROFUNDUS(PECTORALIS MINORinman)

iv. PECTORALISDESCE DENS

V. PECTORALISTRANSVERSUS

 b. Makealabelleddiagram

oftheventralviewofthepectoralandneckmuscles.

 c. Whichofthetwomuscles,pectoralissuperficialisandprofundus,isthelargestinrat?

 d. Whatarethemajorfunctionsofthesepectoraliscomplexmuscles?



EXERCISE6:TRAPEZIUSandSTERNOCLEIDOMASTOIDGROUPOFMUSCLES



a. IdentifytheTRAPEZIUSandSTERNOCLEIDOMASTOIDGROUPandtheyareasfollows:

i. THORACICTRAPEZIUS‐athinsheetofmusclecoveringthecranialpartofthe

LATISSIMUSDORSI.

ii. CERVICA LTRAPEZIUS–liescranialtothethoracictrapezius,itsfibresconverge

to insert on the ventral portion of the scapula 

spine and its metacromion

process

iii. CLEIDOBRACHIALIS

iv. STERNOMASTOID – arises from MANUBRIUM, extends cranially and dorsally 

toinsertonthemastoidregionoftheskull.

v. CLEIDOMASTOID – extending from the clavicle to the mastoid region of the

skull

 b. Whatarethefunctionsofthisgroupofmuscles?

 c. Makealabelleddiagramofthelateralviewofthepectoral,neckandheadmusclesof

theratorcat.



EXERCISE7:APPENDICULARMUSCLES(BRACHIALMUSCLES):



a. Identifythefollowing BRACHIALMUSCLES:

 i. TENSORFASCIAEANTEBRACHII–closelyassociatedwiththeTRICEPSBRACHII

ii. TRICEPS BRACHII –hasthreemainheads,longhead,lateralhead andmedial

head.

iii. BICEPSBRACHII–ontheanteromedialsurfaceofthehumerus

iv. BRACHIORADIALIS

v. EXTENSORCARPIRADIALISCOMPLEX

–longusandbrevis

vi. EXTENSORCARPIULNARIS

vii. EXTENSORDIGITORIUMCOMMUNIS

http://www.unaab.edu.ng



viii. EXTENSORDIGITORIUMLATERALIS

ix. FLEXORDIGITORIUMPROFUNDUS(ulnarhead)

x. ABDUCTOR POLLICISLONGUS

b. Make a labelled diagram of the lateral and medial view of the extensor and flexor

musclesoftheforearmoftheratorcat.

c. Whataretheirfunctions?



EXERCISE8:APPENDICULARMUSCLES(PELVICand

THIGHMUSCLES):

 a. Identifythefollowing PELVICandTHIGHmuscles:

i. SARTORIUS–abandextendingfromthecrestandventralborderoftheilium

(origin)tothepatellaandmedialsideofthethigh.

ii. TENSORFASCIAELATAE–liesonthelateralsurfaceofthethigh.

iii. BICEPSFEMORIS–

coversthelateralsurfaceofthethighcaudaltofacialata.

iv. SEMITENDINOSUS–liescaudaltotheoriginofthebiceps.

v. CAUDOFEMORALIS–cranialanddorsaltotheoriginofbice ps

vi. GLUTEUSSUPERFISCIALIS–arisesfromthesacralfasciaandfromthespinosus

processesofsacraland

anteriorcaudalvertebrae

vii. GLUTEUSMEDIUS–liespartlyorentirelydeeptothesuperficialis,arisesfrom

thecrestandlateralsurfaceoftheiliumandadjacentvertebrae

viii. GLUTEUSPROFUNDUS(corres pondstothegluteusminimusofman)

b. Make a labelled diagram of the lateral view of the pelvic  and

 thigh muscle of cat or

rat.

c. Whataretheirfunctions?



EXERCISE9:APPENDICULARMUSCLES(QUADRICEPSFEMORISCOMPLEX):



 a. Identifythefollowing muscles:

i. GRACILLIS

ii. SEMIMEMBRANOSUSPROPRIUS

iii. PECTINEUS

iv. ADDUCTORLONGUS

v. ADDUCTORBREVISETMAGNUS

vi VASTUSMEDIALIS

vii. RECTUSFEMORIS

viii. VASTUSINTERMEDIUS

 b. Makealabelleddiagramofthemedialviewofthethighmusclesofcator

rabbit

 c. Whatarethefunctionsofthesem uscles?



EXERCISE10:HEADandNECKMUSCLES:



 a. identifythefollowingHEADandNECKmuscles:

i. TEMPORALIS

II. MASSETER

III. CLEIDO‐OCCIPITALIS

http://www.unaab.edu.ng



iv. CLEIDOMASTOIDE US

v. STERNOMASTOIDEUS

vi. DIGASTRICUS





MODULE9:LEVERSYSTEMSINOURBODY:AsinPhysicalScience,movementbyanimals,vertebrates

in this case is also dependent on lever systems of arrangement bones, joints and muscles. Hence

termslikeaxis,fulcrum,loadcanbeapplicabletomotionin

vertebratestoo.

EXERCISE1:LEVEROFTHEFIRSTCLASS:



 a. Nodyourheadasinsayingyesoragreementtosomething

i. Whatmakesthisabovemovementpossible?

ii. Where istheFULCRUMofthislever?

iii. WhereistheLOADorRESISTANCE?

iv. WhereistheEFFORT



EXERCISE2:LEVEROFTHESECONDCLASS:



 a. Liftyourheelsoffthegroundandstandontheballsofyourfeet.

i. Whereisthefulcrum?

ii. Where istheloadorresistance?

iii. Whereistheeffort?



EXERCISE3:LEVEROFTHETHIRDCLASS:



 a. Liftaweightwithyourlowerarmandbendthearmattheelbow

i. Whereisthefulcrum?

ii. Where istheload?

iii. Whereistheeffort?



PreparedbyDedeke,GabrielA.