#<7061;0-:%61>-:;1<A#<7061;0-:%61>-:;1<A
1;0-:1/1<)4!=*41+)<176;1;0-:1/1<)4!=*41+)<176;
#87:<)6)/-5-6<%6,-:/:),=)<- #87:<)6)/-5-6<-8):<5-6<
#8:16/
#<):!7?-:58)+<76<<-6,)6+-#<):!7?-:58)+<76<<-6,)6+-
7:A-<+)4.-
#<7061;0-:%61>-:;1<A
7447?<01;)6,),,1<176)4?7:3;)<0<<8;D;0-:8=*;2.-,=;87:<(=6,-:/:),
!):<7.<0-#87:<;)6)/-5-6<75576;
"-+755-6,-,1<)<176"-+755-6,-,1<)<176
-<+)4.-7:A#<):!7?-:58)+<76<<-6,)6+-
#87:<)6)/-5-6<%6,-:/:),=)<-
!)8-:
!4-);-67<-<0)<<0-"-+755-6,-,1<)<1768:7>1,-;/-6-:)4+1<)<17616.7:5)<176)6,5)A67<*-
)88:78:1)<-.7:A7=:,1;+18416-$7:-+-1>-0-4816+:-)<16/)+1<)<176*);-,76A7=:,1;+18416-84-);->1;1<
0<<841*/=1,-;;2.+-,=+1<)<176;
$01;,7+=5-6<1;87;<-,)<0<<8;D;0-:8=*;2.-,=;87:<(=6,-:/:),)6,1;*:7=/0<<7A7=.7:.:--)6,78-6
)++-;;*A1;0-:1/1<)4!=*41+)<176;)<7:57:-16.7:5)<17684-);-+76<)+<D;0-:8=*;2.-,=
#<):!7?-:58)+<76<<-6,)6+-#<):!7?-:58)+<76<<-6,)6+-
*;<:)+<*;<:)+<
641-=7.)6)*;<:)+<0-:-1;<0-8)8-:;D:;<8):)/:)80 6-+0)44-6/-5)6A<-)5C;165)6A,1..-:-6<
4-)/=-;.)+-1;<0-)*141<A<7:-+7/61B-.)657<1>-;)6,.)6)<<-6,)6+-<7<0-1:<-)5C;/)5-; =:)A
$-)57?6-:;;<:=//4-->-:AA-):<7D6,<0-*-;<*)4)6+-*-<?--6?16616//)5-;?16616/
+0)58176;018;<:)1616/84)A-:;)6,01:16/+7)+0C;)4476<0-*);-7.5)316/576-A$-)5;16<0-
)<176)4);3-<*)44;;7+1)<176-):6576-A<0:7=/0$&+76<:)+<;41+-6;-,/77,;)6,$1+3-<
;)4-;)6A,1..-:-6<7?6-:;16,1..-:-6<4-)/=-;0)>-<0-1:7?6)88:7)+0-;)6,/7)4;?0-6<0-<07=/0<
7.:)1;16/)<<-6,)6+-)</)5-;+75-;<7<0-9=-;<17613-41<+0#:7?6-:7.<0-)<176)47+3-A
-)/=-C;-<:71<"-,'16/;)6,)27:-)/=-);-*)44C;-<:71<$1/-:;0)>-)88:7)+0-,
:->-6=-/-6-:)<176<0:7=/0*=14,16/)<-)5<7?16)+0)58176;018?1<0<0-1,-)<0)<?16616/4-)/=-
+0)58176;018;:-;=4<;1616+:-);-,<1+3-<;)4-;)6,)<<-6,)6+-#0-)6;7++-:<01;<:-6,7.
*=14,16/)<-)5<7?16)+0)58176;018+)6*-;--6?1<0<0-)::1>)47.:-,,A,=-#+0:1>-:)6,
)>1,-+30)5$0-;<=,A,76-76)>1,-+30)5;=887:<;5A:-;-):+09=-;<176477316/)<?0-6
271616/<0-##16+--+30)5C;;<):87?-:?);)4:-),A-;<)*41;0-,<0-:-;-):+0.7=6,<0)<*:16/16/
-+30)5<7<0-)4)@A16+:-);-,1<;)<<-6,)6+-*-+)=;-7.01;878=4):1<A)6,;<):87?-:)?;76
#0--0)6#<-80-6;76A=;16/<0-16.7:5)<176)*7=<-+30)5)6,)4)@A7.1587:<16/;<):
87?-:84)A-:;<7<0-#?-;07=4,4773)<7<0-:4-)/=-;<7;--1.;1514)::-;=4<;)88-):167<0-:4-)/=-;
413-<0-
7+=5-6<$A8-7+=5-6<$A8-
%6,-:/:),=)<-!:72-+<
!:7.-;;7:;)5-!:7.-;;7:;)5-
)<0):16-=:)37?;31
#=*2-+<)<-/7:1-;#=*2-+<)<-/7:1-;
#87:<;)6)/-5-6<
$01;=6,-:/:),=)<-8:72-+<1;)>)14)*4-)<1;0-:1/1<)4!=*41+)<176;0<<8;D;0-:8=*;2.-,=;87:<(=6,-:/:),
NBA Star Power: Impact on Attendance
Cory Metcalfe
St. John Fisher College
Running header: STAR POWER AND THE IMPACT ON ATTENDANCE
Introduction
One challenge many team’s in many different leagues face is the ability to recognize fan
motives and fan attendance to their team’s games (Ouray 2006). Team owners struggle every
year to find the best balance between winning games, winning championships, training players
and hiring coach’s all on the base of making money. Teams in the National Basketball
Association (NBA) earn money through T.V contracts, licensed goods, and Ticket sales. Many
different owners in different leagues have their own approaches and goals when the thought of
raising attendance at games comes to the question. Mike Ilitch Sr., owner of the National Hockey
League’s (NHL) Detroit Red Wings and Major League Baseball’s (MLB) Detroit Tigers have
approached revenue generation through building a team to win a championship with the idea that
winning league championships results in increased ticket sales and attendance (Shea 2007). In
soccer this trend of building a team to win a championship can be seen with the arrival of Freddy
Adu (DeSchriver 2007) and David Beckham. The study done on David Beckham supports my
research question looking at when joining the MLS. Since Beckham’s star power was already
established the research found that bringing Beckham to the Galaxy increased its attendance
because of his popularity and star power (Lawson, Sheehan, & Stephenson 2008). By using the
information about Beckham and L.A. Galaxy of importing star power players to the MLS we
should look at other leagues to see if similar results appear in other leagues like the NBA.
In the National Hockey League (NHL) similar results have been found to David
Beckham in soccer. Allain (2011) focused on the emerging hockey star player Sidney Crosby,
The difference being David Beckham had already established his star power in soccer, and
Sidney Crosby was star prospect. Allain (2011) research did find a higher attendance at games
when Sidney Crosby played versus when he did not. A factor that may have affected this study
2
Running header: STAR POWER AND THE IMPACT ON ATTENDANCE
was the NHL lockout. When teams and leagues have lockouts it has strange effect on attendance
when the lockout is over. Hansen and Gauthier(1989) Found a mix result of attendance when the
leagues return to play. Hansen and Gauthier (1989) discovered some teams attendance was
restored to normal, other teams attendance increased, and other teams attendance decreased from
the last season, they believe that fans were upset about losing their season so would not go to the
first few games when the lockout was finished.
Looking at the NBA and the players marketability in the NBA which is commonly
known as a “players League” (Morse, Shapiro, McEvoy, & Rasher, 2004) or individual marquee
players being more marketable then the teams themselves. This is seen in the NBA as good
individual players being able to demand trades but choose to only go if the players like the team
they have been traded for. In other leagues the front office has a majority of the power, if a
player demands to be traded they may be traded but will have little say on where they will be
traded to, in most cases this is true however there are some cases where the player may say
where they want to go or threaten to retire as seen with Brett Favre and Carson Palmer of the
National Football League (NFL). Unlike other professional sport leagues in the United States
the NBA seems to have a larger connection between fans and individual players rather than fan
and the team. One possible strategy that was found is to shift the marketability from the team
performance to an individual performance (Hausman & Leonard 1997) the Cleveland Cavaliers
took this approach when they drafted superstar hopeful LeBron James in 2003. The team
finished with the worst attendance in 2003 and with the selection of LeBron James in the draft
and the marketability of LeBron ticket sales greatly improved to number nine in the league the
following season (ESPN Attendance Report). Recently the NBA has changed from the 90’s
examples are the changing of the rules, trading of players, drafting young players, and
3
Running header: STAR POWER AND THE IMPACT ON ATTENDANCE
international players. The 90’s was a time when the NBA looked at international talent and
brought them to the NBA, by doing this the style of play changed due to the influence of these
foreign players. Things like flopping or drawing fouls became noticed which slowed the game
down because of all the fouls being called. This has become a huge problem for the NBA in
today’s game. Scoring is also seen a change from the 90’s to now, in the 90’s teams would
regularly score 70 points a game in today’s game scores are expected to reach 90 or even 100
points for a team in a single game.
The new NBA has seen trends with high scoring, teams are trading and signing star
players and forming “super teams” that have 3 or more superstar players on one team. The first
major “super team” in today’s era can be given credit to the Boston Celtics after acquiring
superstars Kevin Garnett, Ray Allen, and Glen Davis. This team won the championship that
season and has developed a model other teams have taken on for themselves. In 2010 the Miami
Heat developed their own “super team” by re-signing Dwayne Wade, Signing LeBron James and
signing Chris Bosh(Miami Herald 2010). The team went to the finals in the first year and won
the championship in the second year with the new signings. Former member of the Boston
Celtics Ray Allen has signed with the Heat this season leaving one “super team” for another
(ESPN). Most recently the Los Angeles Lakers have jumped into the “super team” trend by
having Kobe Bryant, Pau Gasol, and trading for Dwight Howard and Steve Nash(ESPN). The
trend also has affected other teams but not to the same magnitude these three teams have. Other
teams include, Oklahoma City Thunder, New York Knicks, Brooklyn Nets, Los Angeles
Clippers, Dallas Mavericks, and San Antonio Spurs (ESPN).
4
Running header: STAR POWER AND THE IMPACT ON ATTENDANCE
The purpose of this study is to find out if there is a relationship between a star player on
one team and the effect on attendance in another city when the star player plays in an away
game. By doing this research I intend to fill a void of this research that has not been done since
the 1990’s. I believe the information will be different with newer research being done because of
the changes in the league and the current trend of buying players to win championships quickly.
The information gathered from this research should benefit the sport management community on
how to better understand the importance of celebrity star players can have on the attendance of a
team’s games. I intend to look at the Miami Heat, Los Angeles Clippers, Boston Celtics, and the
New York Knicks. I’m expecting to see a difference in a team’s average home season
attendance and the game attendance when a star player is present at these games. The difference
if there is one would most likely be the cause of the addition of the players LeBron James, Chris
Paul, Carmelo Anthony, and Kevin Garnett. LeBron James is a unique player in the NBA
compared to others because he did not attend college or play professionally before being drafted
number 1 overall in the NBA draft in 2003. Only three players have been selected number one
overall in the draft after high school these include Kwame Brown in 2001 http://espn.go.com ,
LeBron James in 2003 http://espn.go.com , and Dwight Howard in 2004 http://espn.go.com.
These will be the only players ever drafted in the NBA draft after high school because the league
has changed the rules of when players can be drafted. LeBron James is also special because no
other player has dramatically made a positive difference for a team in his first professional
season in the NBA. Although not a first overall draft pick his on court success has been
compared to that of Michael Jordan. Similar to LeBron James’s move from Cleveland to Miami,
Michael Jordan had a retirement and move from the Chicago Bulls to Washington Wizards.
5
Running header: STAR POWER AND THE IMPACT ON ATTENDANCE
Michael Jordan and LeBron James are also similar in not only being dominating players but have
similar records of achievements from the NBA, Olympic appearances and gold medals.
Review of literature
Attendance in the National Basketball Association
In the past there have been a lot of studies done on factors which affect attendance and sport
venues. Most of these studies have been in the field of Major League Baseball (Marcum, &
Greenstein 1985; Hansen & Gauthier 1989; James & Ross 2002) with some new research being
done on Major League Soccer(DeSchriver 2007; Lawson, Sheeshan, & Stephenson 2008) and
international soccer (Hoyos 2008; Brandes, Franck, & Nuesch 2008; Kuethe, & Montamed
2010). The foundation study for the research was conducted by Noll’s (1974) research which
examined the influence of attendance through ticket prices, team quality, number of star players,
population, and per capita income was set as the main stage for other research to be done. A few
studies have been done on the NBA most recently (Morse, Shapiro, McEvoy, & Rascher 2008)
on the effects of roster turnover. (Berri, Schmidt, & Brooks 2004) looked at the impact of star
power on NBA gate revenues, and variables affecting spectator decisions to attend NBA games
(Zhang, Pease, & Hue 1995). When superstars such as Michael Jordan and Larry Bird played in
away games the home team experienced an increase in attendance because of their popularity
among fans (Hausman, & Leonard 1997). Currently no research has been done on the effects on
attendance with the arrival of a new star player present times in the NBA. This research has not
been conducted because of the vast number of variables and motives that can change with
individual fans. The arrival of a new player, new ownership, success of team, and accessibility
has been noted to change fan attendance (James & Ross 2004). Looking at the research that had
6
Running header: STAR POWER AND THE IMPACT ON ATTENDANCE
been done about team performance, demand, and star player attractions (Long, & Sompii 1985;
Brown, Spiro, & Keenan 1991; Burdekin, & Idson 1991) only Brown, Spiro, & Keenan (1991)
were able to connect the demand of the consumer and the team’s star player. Because of this we
must look at what defines a star player. Berri, Scmidt, and Brook (2004) defines a star player as
“a player who has made the All-Pro team in five times or if he has played only a few years,
dominates his position or “ a player who has played in the NBA All-Star game for at least 50%
of his years in the league. Burdekin and Idson (1991) included a player if he was voted by the
media to either the first or second All-NBA teams. For my study I will be looking at players who
have been selected to participate in the Olympics, who were first round draft selections when
brought into the league, and have been traded from one team to another during the high point of
their career.
Factors affecting fan motivations
There are many reasons that affect the number of people that attend games in the NBA
and in other professional leagues. Spectators may attend games if the price of the ticket is within
the individual’s expendable income. Rishe and Mondello (2004) claim that the success of the
NBA team in the prior season has a relatively small effect on ticket price. The authors
determined there to be only a three and five percent increase in ticket price in the NBA if the
team made the post season the prior year. Based on Rishe and Mondello (2004) this could affect
a fans willingness to attend games if the team has a strong history of postseason appearances
especially if the team is in the postseason consistently from year to year due to the limited
amount of discretionary income a fan may have.
7
Running header: STAR POWER AND THE IMPACT ON ATTENDANCE
Similar results were found when looking with the research done by Gencer, Kiremitci,
and Boyacioglu (2011). They found that escape was the dominate reason why fans attended
games, by dissatisfied with their home life, work life, and personal life. Although this is not a
permanent escape but a temporary relief that allows an individual to enjoy themselves while
attending a game. However if a person has a stressed life and cannot financially afford to get an
escape by attending games they may be force to ignore their problems or seek a less expensive
alternative.
The price of other alternative activities is important to understand in relation to fan
motivation because of the ability to choose one event over another to spend their discretionary
income. If the fan of a sports team has an opportunity to not go to a game but to attend
something else, the effect of less of an attendance may present itself to NBA teams. Rishe &
Mondello (2004) suggest mediocre teams in large markets may see more effects of different
events coming to the city, such as concerts, and shows, or other sports teams. Popular
replacement activities to attending sports games also included with fan motivation is the length
of the regular season and the opportunity to see a show encourages fans to do alternate activities
rather than attending games. Gencer, Kiremitci, & Boyacioglu (2011) add unpredictability of a
game result may play a role in how fans attend games to the list given by Rishe & Mondello
(2004) as things that affect fan motivations to attend games.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
Looking at Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (Marsh 1978) can also play a role in the
importance of attending games to fulfill a need for individuals (Gencer, Kiremitci, & Boyacioglu
2011). Maslow’s theory suggests that every individual has a foundation of needs which need to
be fulfilled in order to want more out of life. Maslow divides the needs into 5 categories which
8
Running header: STAR POWER AND THE IMPACT ON ATTENDANCE
are Physiological, Safety, Love and Belonging, Self-esteem, and Self- actualization. The
Physiological category includes human needs of breathing, food, water, and sleep. The safety
category includes security of health, family body, and employment. The love and belonging
category includes friendship, family, and social acceptance. The self-esteem category includes
respect of others, being respect by others, and self-confidence. The self-actualization category
includes morality and creativity. Depending on the individual attending games this may fulfill
the categories of belonging to a specific social group (Gencer, Kiremitici, & Boyacioglu 2011)
Prior research has suggested spectators motives are focused on these needs (Zhang, Pease, &
Hue 1995). Funk, Mahony, and Ridinger (2002) research found factors that relate to fan loyalty
in which fans loyalty to the team and the player are the same when it comes to attending games.
The three sections mentioned above in regards to Attendance, price and discretionary income,
and Maslow theory play a very important part in measuring if a team will see an increase in
ticket sales and attendance with the addition of a star player. Looking at attendance alone gives
us numbers but not the reason behind the numbers. Major League Baseball has study fan motives
many times, Matsuoka, Chelladurai, and Harada (2003) researched found that fan interaction
directly affected fans intentions to attend games. By being able to interact and connect to a team
the fans adopted the team into their personal life and some fans even felt obligated to attend
games. By considering the fans external motives (discretionary income) and internal motives
(filling a need from Maslow’s theory) I should be able to make a connection to fans motivation
and the increase desire to see a game with the addition of a star player.
METHODS
METHODS
9
Running header: STAR POWER AND THE IMPACT ON ATTENDANCE
By using a post positivism research tradition and the statistics given by ESPN.com and
NBA.com the study of star power and the influence on attendance at away games, the use of
quantitative research will be used instead of qualitative because the numbers can be measured
and compared to each other.
For change in attendance I will be using recording positive, neutral, and negative change.
Change in attendance is any full percentage point change from a team’s season game average
with the presence of a star player playing in the arena. A star player will be known as the “face
of the franchise” the definition of a star player also includes being traded from one team to
another during their career. The terminology of face of the franchise will be defined as the player
whom marketing strategies were based around on their original team and also what the mass
media portrays as the leader of the team. This is being chosen to see if an imitate change takes
place. The players will be LeBron James, traded from Cleveland Cavilers to the Miami Heat.
Kevin Garnett traded from Minnesota Timberwolves to Boston Celtics. Carmelo Anthony,
Traded from Denver Nuggets to New York Knicks, and Chris Paul, traded from New Orleans
Hornets to Los Angeles Clippers. All four players have been chosen because of the expectation
they had when drafted in to the league, all first round draft picks, and to give a broader example
based on where they moved, North to South, East to West, West to East.
The Participants for the study were selected based on the individual’s star power and
based on a player trade between two teams. The variables used for the selection of the players
were All-star players which have been named to ALL-NBA teams. First round draft picks, and
have been labeled as the face of the franchise for a particular team. The participants that were
selected were LeBron James, Carmelo Anthony, Chris Paul, and Kevin Garnett. These players
10
Running header: STAR POWER AND THE IMPACT ON ATTENDANCE
were in the category of star player and also went through a trade during a specific season or in
the off season.
The data was obtained from two reliable resources www. NBA.com and www.ESPN.com
the sources have been confirmed to have similar data for each of the NBA seasons attendance
numbers along with the information on trades. The data used for the seasons selected were the
attendance numbers when a star player participated in the away games. Since the difference in
attendance is largely different in weekday games and weekend games only the weekend games
information was used for the study. A weekend game has been identified by Friday and Saturday
games only.
The study was broken down into 3 main parts: raw average home attendance for a team
and raw star player attendance per game, percentage change for season and percentage of
capacity for a star player at a game. When the percentage change for each was found, a simple T-
Test was used to compare the results. The simple T-Test was used to compare the two sample
means. By using this test it compares the actual differences in the numbers or percent and can be
easily view to see if the percentage of a stadium is filled more with a star player playing or if he
does not play. The T- Test was used to analyze the data. The use of percentage change was used
to take into account the difference is size of each arena because smaller stadiums regularly sell
out with or without a star player visiting the arena. For example New Orleans maximum capacity
is 17,188 and the maximum capacity of the stadium of the Detroit pistons is 22,076. By using the
change in percentage rather than a solid number, every game can be interpreted from the data
that was obtained for the attendance. By turning the raw numbers into a percent the numbers will
be able to interpret to every team, not just the ones that see a large increase.
11
Running header: STAR POWER AND THE IMPACT ON ATTENDANCE
RESULTS
Results
The results of the simple t-test are listed below star player. (N) is defined by the total
number of games the athlete’s team participated in during the 2011 season. (t) Is defined by
. (df) represents the number of games the athlete’s participated in. (Sig. (2-tail)) is defined as the
level of significance found by the statistical test of the home team’s average attendance with the
average attendance with the star player present. The final column alpha is defined using the
Bonnferoni adjustment for alpha with a 95% confidence level.
All Four Athletes
N
t
df
Sig. ( 2-
Tail)
alpha
Home Team Average Attendance% &
Average Attendance W/Star Player
33
-9.447
32
0.000
0.01
Carmelo Anthony
8
-2.667
8
0.028
0.01
LeBron James
10
-5.900
9
0.000
0.01
Chris Paul
4
-3.921
4
0.017
0.01
Kevin Garnett
9
-5.233
8
0.001
0.01
The following is the attendance and game information gathered from www.ESPN.com and
The above chart is the results from the 4 players selected on an individual basis. It shows the individual
player, the coping number used to identify the player when using a paired sample test. The team the
individual players were playing against. The teams, the players, were playing against attendance average
percentage in relation to the stadium capacity, and the average attendance in the stadium when the
selected player is playing at that specific arena.
12
Running header: STAR POWER AND THE IMPACT ON ATTENDANCE
The above diagram exhibits the Boston Celtics season by listing the day of the game, the
opponent of the Boston Celtics, the attendance of the game against the specific opponent, if the
star player participated in the specific game, the overall capacity of the stadium of the opponent
of the Boston Celtics, and the attendance percentage of the capacity by the specific game
attendance.
The above diagram shows the away games used for the study in regards to Carmelo Anthony.
The date represents the date in which the game took place, the opponent represents who the New
York Knicks played on the specific date, the Attendance represents the number of people who
Boston Celtics
Date
Opponent Attendance
Garnett Stadium Capacity
Attendance %
14-Jan
Pacers 14,203
yes
18,165
78.0
10-Feb
Raptors
19,207
yes
19800
85.0
16-Mar
Kings
17,317
yes 17,317
83.8
17-Mar
Nuggets
19,003
yes 19,155
88.9
23-Mar 76ers
19,583
yes 20,328
86.1
30-Mar
Timberwolve
19,356
yes
19,356
90.4
7-Apr
Pacers 16,892
yes 18,165
78.0
13-Apr
Raptors 17,270
yes 19,800
85.0
14-Apr
Nets 18,711
yes 20,049
75.5
20-Apr Hawks
16,214
no 18,238
81.2
Knicks
Date
Opponent
Attendance
Carmelo
Stadium Capacity
Attendance %
31-Dec
Kings
16,175
Yes
17,317
83.8
6-Jan
Wizards
16,998
Yes
20,308
82.9
7-Jan
Pistons
12,044
Yes
22,076
65.3
14-Jan
Thunder
18,203
No
18,203
100.0
27-Jan
Heat
19,707
No
19,600
101.7
28-Jan
Rockets
18,051
No
18,023
85.1
3-Feb
Celtics
18,624
Yes
18,624
100.0
11-Feb
Timberwolves
20,232
No
19,356
90.4
9-Mar
Bucks
18,717
Yes
18,717
78.6
17-Mar
Pacers
18,165
Yes
18,165
78.0
23-Mar
Raptors
19,800
Yes
19,800
85.0
30-Mar
Hawks
18,389
Yes
18,238
81.2
20-Apr
Cavaliers
19,349
Yes
20,562
77.5
13
Running header: STAR POWER AND THE IMPACT ON ATTENDANCE
attend the game on the specific date, the Carmelo column represents if Carmelo Anthony
participated in the specific game, the Stadium Capacity represents the total capacity of the
stadium where the game took place, and the Attendance % is the percentage of the stadium that
was filled for the specific game.
The above chart represents the information collected for Chris Paul. The date represents the day
the game took place on, the opponent was the team the Los Angeles Clippers played on the
specific date, the Attendance was the recorded attendance for the specific date, the Paul column
represents if Chris Paul participated in the specific game, the stadium Capacity represents the
total number of people the stadium can hold for the team the Clippers were playing, the
attendance % represents the attendance percentage of the stadium for that specific game.
The above chart represents the information used for LeBron James. The Date represents the day
a specific game took place, the opponent was the team the Miami Heat played on the specific
date, the Attendance was the actually number of people who came to the game on specific date,
Clippers
Date Opponent
Attendance Paul stadium capcity
attendance %
4-Feb
Wizards 19,419 yes
20,308
82.9
10-Feb 76ers 20,539
yes
20,328
86.1
11-Feb Bobcats
19,110
yes 19,077
77.4
2-Mar Suns
18,091
yes
18,422
84.7
9-Mar Spurs 18,581
yes 18,581
99.0
Heat
Date Opponent Attendance Lebron stadium cap avg attendance%
30-Dec Timberwolves 19356
yes 19356 90.4
7-Jan Nets 18711 yes 20049 75.5
13-Jan Nuggets 19155 yes 19155 88.9
3-Feb 76ers 20694 yes 20328 86.1
10-Feb Wizards 20282 yes 20308 82.9
17-Feb Cavaliers 20562 yes 20562 77.5
2-Mar Jazz 19911 yes 19911 97
16-Mar 76ers 20396 yes
20308 86.1
23-Mar
Pistons 22076 yes 22076 65.3
30-Mar Raptors 19883 yes 19800 85
14
Running header: STAR POWER AND THE IMPACT ON ATTENDANCE
the LeBron column represents if LeBron James participated in the specific game, the stadium
capacity represents the number of people the stadium can hold for the team the Miami Heat are
playing, and the avg. attendance% represents the percentage of the stadium that was filled when
the team played the Miami Heat.
Player Compairson
Star Player Home Team Home Team Average Attendance% Average Attendance w/ star player
Melo 1
Kings
0.838 0.934053242
1
Wizards 0.829 0.837010045
1 Pistons 0.653
0.54556985
1 Celtics 1 1
1 Bucks 0.786 1
1 Pacers 0.78
1
1 Raptors 0.85 1
1 Hawks 0.812
1.008279417
1 Cavaliers 0.775 0.941007684
LeBron 2
Timberwolve
0.904 1
2 Nets 0.755 0.933263504
2 Nuggets 0.889 1
2 76ers 0.861 1.018004723
2 Wizards
0.829 0.998719716
2 Cavaliers 0.775 1
2 Jazz 0.97 1
2
76ers 0.861 1.004333268
2 Pistons 0.653 1
2 Raptors 0.85 1.004191919
Paul 3 Wizards 0.829 0.956224148
3 76ers 0.861 1.010379772
3 Bobcats 0.774 1.001729832
3 Suns 0.847 0.982032353
3 Spurs 0.99 1
Garnett 4 Pacers
0.78 0.781888247
4 Raptors 0.85 0.970050505
4 Kings 0.838
1
4 Nuggets 0.889 0.992064735
4 76ers 0.861 0.963351043
4
Timberwolve
0.904 1
4 Pacers 0.78 0.929920176
4
Raptors 0.85 0.872222222
4 Nets 0.755 0.933263504
15
Running header: STAR POWER AND THE IMPACT ON ATTENDANCE
The above diagram exhibits each of the players games in which the selected athletes participated
in, tested with t test to compare the mean average attendance for a team to the average attendance
when the star player is playing.
Discussion
From
the results given the 4 players selected for the study; LeBron James, Kevin
Garnett, Chris Paul, and Carmelo Anthony had a significant difference on attendance when the
player’s numbers are grouped together. Two players were found to have a significant difference
on the attendance when they played and two players were found not to have a significant
difference on the attendance at the stadiums they played at. The two players that the results
showed a significant difference using a level of confidence of 95% were LeBron James and
Kevin Garnett. The two players whose results showed there did not make a significant difference
were Chris Paul and Carmelo Anthony. As mentioned earlier the results looked only at the
attendance numbers and if a player played in the game, many other things can contribute to the
outcome and not solely on the player appearance at the game, this is prove n in one of the games
when one of the stars did not play in the game and the attendance for the specific game was
actually hire then the season average it was compared to. The variables that were used for the
study that potential had an effect on my results were small sample size, limited data, using only
Friday and Saturday games, the number of years a player had been a part of their new team after
being traded, and other star players on the team. Small sample size could play a role in how the
results were reported because the use of only 4 players does not have a huge impact in
comparison to the number of players in the league. The limited data collection of only one
season could have an impact because there is no way to look at a trend over a longer period of
16
Running header: STAR POWER AND THE IMPACT ON ATTENDANCE
time which would increase accuracy with more data. By selecting only Friday and Saturday
games I cut the number of useful data down to a handful of games instead of an entire season
which may have had an influence on the majority of the numbers. On the outcome of when the
players were grouped together to see if a significant difference would be seen this may have been
influenced since Chris Paul only had 4 games of data and was seen on an individual test to have
no significance difference in attendance change when he was there and when he was not because
he played in all the games. The difference in the number of years may have played a role in the
outcome because of the length of time an individual has to establish themselves on a market.
From the results the players who has been with their new teams since being traded were the ones
who were with a significant difference unlike the other new players whose trade took place more
recent. Kevin Garnett was traded in in 2007 and was found in the test to have a significant
difference. LeBron James was traded/ signed with Miami in 2010 by the Miami Heat and was
seen to have a significant difference in attendance when he played. Chris Paul was traded to the
Los Angeles Clippers in 2011 and did not see a significant difference in attendance according to
the test. Carmelo Anthony was traded to the New York Knicks in 2011 and was shown to see no
significant difference in attendance when he played and when he did not. The last thing that
should be accounted for is the other players on these players’ teams. The Boston Celtics have 2
other very popular players on their team to the addition of Kevin Garnett they may encourage
people to attend games for other players and not just for Kevin Garnett, also the age of Kevin
Garnett is many years older than the other players and through the draft the Boston Celtics have
groomed some young talent into stars themselves encouraging the conclusions that fans may be
going to games to see other players and Kevin Garnett is just another player on the team. The
same can be said for the results found for LeBron James and the Miami Heat. Unlike the mass
17
Running header: STAR POWER AND THE IMPACT ON ATTENDANCE
star power seen in Boston and Miami Chris Paul’s team the Los Angeles Clippers has only 2 star
players on the team including Chris Paul.
Another reason I found after the results came in was the two players, LeBron James and
Kevin Garnett, who saw a significant difference in attendance have won NBA championships.
This could also have played in a reason why fans attend games, in order to see a NBA champion
play. Historical tradition could also play a role for example the Boston Celtics are a very
successful team over the life span of their existence with many championships, 17 and Kevin
Garnett saw a significant difference in attendance. The Los Angeles Clippers are a team with no
NBA championships and Chris Paul being a member of the team saw no significant difference in
attendance.
The information collected here can be used in the future of Sport Management in several
different ways. First the information can be used for a team to spend money on proven star
players in the height of their careers to generate more money and increase the fan base for their
own stadium. By paying a proven star player money can be earned at the gates, at the
merchandise stands, sponsorship opportunities, and team branding. This can also increase
concessions if there are more people at the game the chances are some, not all, will buy a drink
or food. Second if a team cannot afford to buy a star player or there are non-available because of
contracts teams can change marketing strategies for when their team is playing a home game
against a team with a star player. By changing how much money in advertising a team spends
from teams coming to play the team without star players to teams with star player’s management
may see an increase in attendance with the increase advertising. Third teams can adjust schedules
to play star players teams during the week instead of weekends, since weekend games tend to
have hire attendance unlike weekday games.
18
Running header: STAR POWER AND THE IMPACT ON ATTENDANCE
Future
For future studies on star player’s and the effects on attendance, the study suggests using
a larger sample size, a full season of games instead of just weekend games, and using players
with common opponents. The suggestions have been made to strengthen the reliability of results
along with increasing the data from this study. Potential problems futures studies may find are
the every changing numbers of the attendance at each game and the changing of the size of
stadiums. Consideration for team market size may also want to be looked at since the difference
in market size can play a difference in attendance. As stated earlier star power is not the sole
reason for why people attend games, there is a long list of reasons. The purpose of the study was
to look deeper into prior research and to prove that in fact star players may be a contributor to an
increase or decreases in attendance at games. The study shows that the answer to the question if
this is true is it depends.
REFERENCES
Allain, K. A. (2011, March). Kid Crosby or golden boy: Sidney Crosby, Canadian national identity, and the
policing of hockey masculinity. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 46(1), 3-23.
Berri, D. J., & Schmidt, M. B. (2006). On the road with the national basketball association's superstar
externality. Journal of Sports Economics, 7(4), 347-358.
Berri, D. J., Schmidt, M. B., & Brook, S. L. (2004, February). Stars at the gate: The impact of star power on
NBA gate revenues. Journal of Sports Economics, 5, 33-50. Doi:10.1177/1527002503254051
DeSchriver, T. D. (2007). Much adieu about Freddy: Freddy Adu and attendance in major league soccer.
Journal of Sport Management, 438-451.
ESPN. (n.d). NBA attendance report 2004 [data set]. Retrieved from
http://espn.go.com/nba/attendance/_/year/2003
ESPN. (n.d). NBA attendance report 2004 [data set]. Retrieved from
http://espn.go.com/nba/attendance/_/year/2004
ESPN. (n.d). NBA attendance report 2004 [data set]. Retrieved from
http://espn.go.com/nba/attendance/_/year/2005
19
Running header: STAR POWER AND THE IMPACT ON ATTENDANCE
ESPN. (n.d). NBA attendance report 2004 [data set]. Retrieved from
http://espn.go.com/nba/attendance/_/year/2006
ESPN. (n.d). NBA attendance report 2004 [data set]. Retrieved from
http://espn.go.com/nba/attendance/_/year/2007
ESPN. (n.d). NBA attendance report 2004 [data set]. Retrieved from
http://espn.go.com/nba/attendance/_/year/2009
ESPN. (n.d). NBA attendance report 2004 [data set]. Retrieved from
http://espn.go.com/nba/attendance/_/year/2010
ESPN. (n.d). NBA attendance report 2004 [data set]. Retrieved from
http://espn.go.com/nba/attendance/_/year/2011
ESPN. (n.d). NBA attendance report 2004 [data set]. Retrieved from
http://espn.go.com/nba/attendance/_/year/2012
ESPN. (n.d). NBA player profile LeBron James [data set]. Retrieved from http://espn.go.com/nba/bio
ESPN. (n.d). NBA player profile Dwight Howard[data set]. Retrieved from http://espn.go.com/nba/bio
ESPN. (n.d). NBA player profile Kwame Brown[data set]. Retrieved from http://espn.go.com/nba/bio
Gencer, T. R., Kiremitci, O., & Boyacioglu, H. (2011). Spectator motives and points of attachment: an
investigation on professional basketball. Journal of Human Kinetics, 30, 189-196. Doi: 10.2478/v10078-
011-0087-9
Gitter, S. R., & Rhoads, T. A. (2011). Top prospects and minor league baseball attendance. Journal of
Sports Economics, 12(3), 341-352.
Hansen, H., & Gauthier, R. (1989). Factors affecting attendance at professional sport events. Journal of
Sport Management, 3, 15-32.
Hausman, J. A., & Leonard, G. K. (1997). Superstars in the national basketball association: Economic
value and policy. Journal of Labor Economics, 15(4), 586-624.
Hoyos, I. (2008). Media sport stars and junior players: the design and analysis of the recruiting methods
of players in Real Madrid. Soccer & Society, 9(4), 551-563.
James, J., & Ridinger, L. (2002). Female and male sport fans: A comparison of Sport Consumption
Motives. Journal of Sport Behavior, 3(3), 1-19.
James, J. D., & Ross, S. D. (2004). Comparing sport consumer motivations across multiple sports. Sport
Marketing Quarterly, 17-25.
James, J., & Ross, S. (2002). The motives of sport consumers: A comparison of major and minor league
baseball. International Journal of Sport Management, 3(3), 180-198.
Kahane, L., & Scmanske, S. (1997). Team roster turnover and attendance in Major League Baseball.
Applied Economics, 29(4), 425-431
Lawson, R. A., Sheehan, K., & Stephenson, F. E. (2008). Vend it like Beckham: David Beckham's effect on
MLS ticket sales. International Journal of Sport Finance, 3, 189-195.
Marcum, J. P., & Greenstein, T. N. (1985). Factors affecting attendance of major league baseball: II. A
within-season analysis. Sociology of Sport Journal, 2, 314-322.
Marsh. E.R. (1978). Maslow’s implied matrix: A clarification of the need hierarchy theory. Social Behavior
and Personality, 6(1),113-116
Matsuoka, H., Chelladurai, P., & Harada, M. (2003). Direct and interaction effects of team identification
and satisfaction on intention to attend games. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 12(4), 244-253
20
Running header: STAR POWER AND THE IMPACT ON ATTENDANCE
Maxcy, J., & Mondello, M. (2006). The impact of free agency in North American professional team sports
leagues. Journal of Sport Management, 20(3), 345-365.
Morse, A. L., Shapiro, S. L., McEvory, C. D., & Rascher, D. A. (2008, February). The effects of roster
turnover on demand in the national basketball association. International Journal of Sport Finance, 3(1),
8-19.
Neale, W. C. (1964, February). The peculiar economics of professional sports. The Quarterly Journal of
Economics, 1-14.
Noll, R. (1974). Attendance and price setting. In R.Noll (ED.) Government and the sport business.
Washington, DC: Brookings Institution.
Nourayi, M. M. (2006). Profitability in professional sports and benchmarking: The case of NBA
franchises. Benchmarking: An International Journal, 13(3), 252-271.
Rishe, P., & Modello, M. (2004). Ticket price determination in professional sports: An empirical analysis
of the NBA, NFL, NHL, and Major League Baseball. Sports Marketing Quarterly, 12(2) 104-112
Schofield, J. A. (1983). Performance and attendance at professional team sports. Journal of Sport
Behavior, 6, 196-206.
Shea, K. (March, 16, 2007). One on one with Mike Ilitch. Retrieved from
http://www.hhof.com/htmlSpotlight/spot_oneononeb200301.shtml
Shih, W. H., Ching, D. T., & Chung, H. (2012). Toward Team or Player? How trust, vicarious achievement
motive, and identification affect fan loyalty. Journal of Sport Management, 26(2), 177-192.
Staffo, D. F. (1998). The development of professional basketball in the United States, with an emphasis
on the history of the NBA to its 50th anniversary season in 1996-97. Physical Educator, 55(1), 9-19.
Trail, G., & James, J. (2001). An analysis of the sport fan motivation scale. Journal of Sport Behavior, 24,
108-127.
Wann, D. L. (1995). Preliminary validation of the sport fan motivation scale. Journal of Sport and Social
Issues, 19, 377-396.
Willams, M. A., & Reilly, T. (2000, September). Editorial: Searching for the stars. Journal of Sports
Science, 18(9), 655-658.
Wojtys, E. M. (2012). Rising Star. Sports Health, 4(3), 191-193.
Zhang, J. J., Pease, D. G., & Hue, S. C. (1995). Variables affecting the spectator decision to attend NBA
games. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 4(4), 29-39.
Zhang, J. J., Smith, D. W., Pease, D. G., & Jambor, E. A. (1997). Negative influence of market competitors
on the attendance of professional sport game: The case of a minor league hockey team. Sport Marketing
Quarterly, 6(3), 34-40.
21
Running header: STAR POWER AND THE IMPACT ON ATTENDANCE
Abstract: The author will be comparing game by game attendance numbers, along with season
total attendance numbers from the 1990’s through and including the year by Investigating star
power in the NBA and the impact it has on attendance. Quantitative research will be used to
examine select teams and the affect star players in the NBA have on these teams. By examining
the selected teams using fan motivation, attendance numbers, and Maslow’s theory of hierarchy,
the author hopes to find a comparison between star players and attendance at games. Reliable
secondary attendance data for the selected team has been gathered to accurately to illustrate the
difference in attendance with and without a star player. Fan motivation and the study of Maslow
theory of hierarchy will be considered supportive evidence for reasons why attendance numbers
may change.
22
