The Education of Indentured Servants in Colonial America

The Journal of Technology Studies

Abstract

This article serves as a foundation for

understanding the earliest form of technical

instruction in colonial America. It is a synthesis

of historical studies that have addresses the edu-

cation of indentured servants and apprentices in

colonial America. It defines indentured servi-

tude and contrasts it with apprenticeship—a

form of indentured service. The paper addresses

how indentured servitude in colonial America

became estab

lished and how those who were

employed through such means fared. Primary

emphasis is on the education that indentured

servants and apprentices would have received

and how that varied by time periods and regions.

This manuscript reveals that three general

changes occurred: 1) from the adaptation of

traditional practices from England to support

agricultural labor in the early colonial period, 2)

through a transition period caused by slavery

(primarily in the south) and an increased need

for apprentices in skilled trades (primarily in the

north), and 3) until the late colonial period when

education was emerging as a value that would

help America succeed in its independence.

Preface

Technology is a topic that should be

addressed in educating the youth of the United

States. Historically, there have been differing

views re

garding the need for instruction of

technical processes. Yet, throughout the past,

numerous systems and methods ha

ve been

devised to achieve this goal. More recently,

arious disciplines ha

e recognized technology

as an integ

ral part of their fields. Specifically,

the broader study of technology has been

accepted as the primary motiv

e for the profes

sion of technology education.

This article can help students who are

preparing for careers in technology education

to establish a historical background for better

understanding the field in which they aspire to

become teachers. The primary purpose of this

study is to pro

vide a historical account of one

of the earliest for

ms of technical lear

ning in

America. It also describes the practice of inden

tured technical instruction as a system utilized

y the colonists and ho

w it helped shape educa

tion even as it exists in modern society. It pres-

ents a general overview of circumstances that

have influenced the instruction of “technics”

throughout the past and provides a foundation

for understanding how technology education has

evolved. This is accomplished by identifying

numerous resources and providing a synthesis of

prior historiographical efforts. Since this review

cites period sources, in unedited form, some

words appear in their original spelling.

Introduction

Indentured servitude was a critical institu-

tion in the development of the American

colonies primarily because a large number of

people were needed to occupy colonial America.

There were many changes made in the system

of indentured servitude and many differences in

the regional application of indentured servitude

within the American colonies throughout the

period. There were also distinct changes in the

relationship between education and indentured

servitude. Initially, there was little interest in

the education or training of indentured servants.

When native-born children began entering the

system as apprentices, the master became the

primary source for a basic education. Finally,

as schools developed, the role of master as an

educator as decreased to its vocational aspect.

When researching the topic of indentured

servitude in colonial America, it is easy to

develop a skewed impression of this practice.

Many historians who mention the indenture sys-

tem typically paint a simple picture of an indi-

vidual who happily worked for another man

until his term was served and he would become

self-reliant. Specif

ic studies that focus e

xclu

sively on the lives of indentured servants in

colonial America will describe a variety of situa-

tions in which a person might hav

e become an

indentured servant, served their indenture, been

treated during that period of indenture, and fared

after the indenture was completed. Thus, it

would not be accurate to stereotype indentured

servants into one simple image.

It is also important to point out that the

terms

indentured servant and apprentice are

closel

y related but, in fact, have slightly

The Education of Indentured Servants in Colonial

America

By Mark R. Snyder

The Journal of Technology Studies

different meanings—particularly when referred

to in the history of colonial America. An inden-

ture is a contract that binds a person to work for

another for a given length of time. An apprentice

is a person under such a legal agreement that

works for a master craftsman in return for

instruction in a specific trade and, formally,

support. Many of those who came to the

American colonies already knew a trade, such

as farming, but could not afford the cost of the

journey across the Atlantic. Thus, they would

agree to an indenture that bound them to a

wealthy planter for a few years and then be

released to make a living themselves. In this

example, the indentured servant was not an

apprentice, per se, because he already knew his

trade. In contrast, an apprentice also usually

was bound by a contact and thus considered

indentured. Only the institution of apprentice-

ship combined technical education and labor

with the promise of eventual self-employment.

The Early Arrival of Indentured

Servants

Indentured servants probably arrived in

America not long after the first English colony,

Jamestown was established in 1607. “That a

man should become a bond servant by legal

contract was not strange, for the ancient institu-

tion of apprenticeship was known to all” (Smith,

1947, p. 13). Galenson (1981) reported that the

Virginia Company had put this system to use by

1620. Alderman (1976) wrote, “around 1624 the

servants began to sign formal indenture” (p. 57).

The practice of indentured servitude made it

possible for emigrants from many European

nations to jour

y to the Ne

w World and was,

indeed, a common practice that was vital to the

econom

y and social de

elopment of colonial

America.

Those w

ho could not af

ford passage to the

New World often pledged service to a colony in

xchange for the cost of the trip and the board

ing fees accrued through the duration of the

indenture. In fact, the large majority of immi-

rants to the Chesapeak

e colonies of Mar

yland

and Virginia prior to 1700 were British inden-

tured servants who served British colonial

planters. Wesley F. Craven (1971) approximated

the population of w

hite indentured servants in

seventeenth-century Virginia to be perhaps

three-four

ths of the total population and John

, a resident of

irginia in 1619, stated,

“Our principall wealth . . . consisteth in servants”

(Cra

en, 1971, p. 13).

As f

ms and plantations

grew larger, and trade increased, so did the need

for labor. This need was met through indentured

servitude and was greatest in the colonies from

Pennsylvania south. The New England colonies

were more likely to use the labor of freemen and

apprentices rather than indentured servants until

later in the colonial period.

Indentured servants throughout the colonies

were either voluntary or coerced by legal author-

ity. Those who became indentured servants of

their own accord were reasonably well treated

and had similar rights to the freemen before the

law. However, their indentures could be bought

or sold without their consent. Otherwise, they

could trade, own property, provide testimony in

court and were provided special laws to protect

them from abuse (Ballagh, 1895, p. 44). The

length of time that voluntary servants were

bound was typically dependent on the amount

owed for the transportation to the colonies,

“usually for from three to five years” (Talpalar,

1960, p. 198). Whatever the length of their

servitude, once their indenture was completed

the liberated servants expected to receive the

“freedom dues” that they had earned through

very hard work. For the indentured farmer this

might have included tools, livestock, corn,

tobacco, and other necessities for them to start

anew.

Assisted Emigration and Runaways

The system of indentured servitude was

ideal for the “assisted emigration” of undesir-

ables. “Of the Scotch prisoners taken at the battle

of Worcester, sixteen hundred and ten were sent

to Virginia in 1651 . . . Many of the Scotch

prisoners of Dunbar and the rebels of 1666 were

sent to New England and the other plantations.”

Also, the social climate in England at this time

was rather volatile due to overpopulation; there-

fore “in 1661 . . . power was given to Justices

of the P

eace to transport felons, beggars and dis-

orderl

y persons” (Talpalar, 1960, pp. 299-300).

Even the trade companies got into the act by

negotiating with other countries for the trade

of their undesirables. Subagents, or recruiters,

would also stoop to persuading, or even kidnap-

ping, y

oung or intoxicated victims in order to

turn a profit by selling them into indentures

once in the colonies. This practice was known

as “spiriting” and those who had been “spirited”

ere indentured according to the “custom of the

country” which was a method of expediency in

these matters. Others w

ho became indentured

The Journal of Technology Studies

involuntarily included felons and debtors already

within the American colonies. Rather than

imprisoning potential laborers, the Pennsylvania

Council declared it “highly reasonable that

people fitt for Labour, or performing any

Service by which they can earn Money, should

by the same Method make Satisfaction for their

just Debts” (Morris, 1946, p. 14).

In many cases, the outlook for indentured

servants was bleak. Morgan (2001) reported that

during the mid seventeenth-century, “in both

Chesapeake colonies servants were forbidden

to leave their homes without a license or pass”

(p. 20). Involuntary servants had fewer rights

than the voluntary indentured servants and many

of them were prone to running away, for which

there were a variety of punishments prescribed

by the different colonies. The harshest punish-

ment was in Maryland where a 1639 law stated

that runaway servants were to be executed.

Other penalties included extended indentures,

payment for lost time extracted from the free-

dom dues, and literally being branded with the

letter “R” (Morgan, 2001, p. 20-21).

Many lawmen arrested suspicious charac-

ters who could not prove that they were free.

In 1773, a “gaoler” in New Jersey posted this

TAKEN UP and committed to the gaol

of the City of Perth, Amboy, in the county of

Middlesex, in New-Jersey, the 1st of July, 1773,

an Irish servant man named JOHN RUTLEGE,

ho confesses he is the servant of one JOHN

PATTERSON, of Tinicum township, Bucks

county, and left his master last month, as men-

tioned in the paper of the 7th of June inst. His

master ma

y ha

e him again by applying to the

subscriber, and paying the reward for taking him

up, and charges. OBADIAH KING, Gaoler

(Heavner, 1978, pp. 118-119).

In Pennsylvania, and most other colonies,

the laws aided the master of a runaw

y ser

vant

but recapture was more often the result of offer-

ing a reward—a financial burden usually trans-

ferred to the unsuccessful runaway servant.

Despite offered rewards, a very large number

of runaway servants were never recovered

(Hea

vner, 1978, p. 116).

erall, the experience of servitude in the

colonies w

as dismal.

According to Wood (1992),

in the colonies, ser

vitude w

as a much harsher

more brutal, and more humiliating status than it

was in England (p. 53). Although some success

stories exist, the majority of indentured servants

lived difficult lives even if they served out their

indentures and became free.

Poor Provisions for Education

The practice of indentured servitude prior to

colonization had been primarily utilized for the

training of youths in specific trades. However,

the British colonizers of America molded the

traditional form of the indenture system to meet

their needs. The most obvious difference was the

decreased interest in skilled craftsmen in the

system-and the large demand for farmers. To

estimate the occupation of male indentured ser-

vants in the colonies, Galenson (1981) used the

records of indentured servants registered in

Bristol, England between 1654-1660, just before

their journey to the American colonies. What he

found was that of the indentured servants regis-

tered in Bristol, roughly 30 percent were previ-

ously farmers, 10 percent were textile workers,

9 percent were laborers, and the rest were a vari-

ety of other occupations (41 percent did not

specify an occupation). These records are indeed

valuable, although little is known of the actual

registration process or the accuracy of the

records. These records also indicated facts such

as the deterioration of agricultural conditions in

England during this period and the destination

of these particular Bristol registrants within the

American colonies—more than half of them

were sent to the colony of Virginia (Craven,

1971, p. 17).

Since the majority of indentured servants

at this time were laborers and primarily young

adults, the education of these early indentured

ser

ants w

as not considered a high priority.

Labor was, in fact, the highest priority. Training,

usually in husbandry, was the most education

that one w

as likely to gain through indenture.

Most training w

as considered unnecessary, if

we reconsider the example of the English farmer

ho agreed to indentured servitude in order to

pay for his transportation to America. Any

education that an indentured servant received

as likely the result of self-motiv

ation or some

special arrangement. “German servants often

entered into indentures providing that they be

taught to read the Bible in English” (Smith,

1947, p. 17).

Also, the few children that were

in the colonies as indentured servants prior to

1650 w

ere probab

y given the benefits of a very

minimal education.

The rate of literac

y for the

The Journal of Technology Studies

indentured servant population that emigrated

from England was characteristically low as was

evidenced by the large number of men and

women who could not sign their names, but

rather left their “mark” on their indentures

(Galenson, 1981).

Change in the Southern and

Chesapeake Bay/Colonies

Mary Newton Stanard, in her book Colonial

Virginia: Its People and Customs (1917), found

that of the indentured servants in Virginia for

whom records exist (from the year 1625), there

were a few that became quite successful. A few

of her examples follow:

For instance, Richard Townshend had come

to Virginia when a boy of fifteen, but we know

that before long he w

as apprenticed to Doctor

Pott to be taught to be a physician and apothe-

cary . . . Abraham Wood was brought to Virginia

. . . and in later years became a Major General

of Militia, the greatest Indian trader of his time,

and a leader in promoting Western exploration .

. . John Upton . . . who became a burgess,

commander of Isle of Wight and mintmaster

general. (Stanard, 1917, pp. 46-48)

The population of the colonies was increas-

ing, as was the need for skilled laborers. The

New England colonies began to compete for

the labor of indentured servants and after about

1700, the Chesapeake Bay colonies could not

obtain, through traditional methods, the labor

force required to maintain the growth of the

plantation economy. The arrival of the

Cavaliers

in Virginia had brought about a change in the

societal hierarchy of the colony (Stanard, 1917,

p. 40).

The Cavaliers were formerly known as the

yalists, a political par

ty that left England

around 1650, following England’s Civil War and

the execution of Charles I. As they settled into

Virginia, it was evident that their ideas differed

from the traditional Puritan views on land and

labor. Things started to change as this incredibly

ealthy minority gained more and more power.

According to Pulliam, (1999 p. 86) “The persons

lowest in social rank were entirely dependent

upon the w

ealth

y and po

erful for w

hat little

education they received.” But because education

was carefully reserved for those favored by

birth, non-privileged southerners largely

remained uneducated. “Rigid Southern social

class distinctions allowed few opportunities for

the indentured servants, the slaves, and the

poverty-stricken freedmen to engage in cultural

pursuits or to improve their minds.”

At about the turn of the eighteenth century,

“indentured servitude was retained: but labor

ceased to be a value (Talpalar, 1960, p. 322).

Due to the advent of Feudalism in the Southern

colonies, the supply of white indentured servants

to the tobacco planters had virtually come to a

standstill. “By 1710, one-fifth of the region’s

population was black (Norton, 1986, p. 104). As

black slave trade increased, and slave labor grew

in the south, the role of the indentured servant

began to change from primarily agricultural

occupations to a wider variety of trade-oriented

jobs.

“The apprenticeship program inherited from

England had the two-fold objective of supplying

the labor market and providing training in a

trade” (Morris, 1946, p. 14). Eventually, a wider

variety of trades emerged in which youngsters

could become apprenticed. Most of the trades

that existed during the later colonial era fell

under general occupational headings. The textile

processing industry included feltmaking and wool

spinning as well as tailoring and hatmaking.

Dealing or retailing was also considered a trade

that an apprentice might learn. Food processing

vocations such as butchering, baking or brewing

were also plentiful during this time. Leather

processing included the skills of tanning, curry-

ing, and saddlemaking. Metal trades included

smithing of all sorts, while the wood and con-

struction trades such as carpentry, joinery,

masonry, plastering, wheelwrighting, and

shipbuilding were also quite common (Davies,

1956, pp. 64-77). These are only a few examples

of the many specialized trades for an apprentice.

Growth of Apprenticeship in the

Middle and New England Colonies

While indentured servitude through migra-

tion decreased g

raduall

y, the number of children

born to the colonists in America increased. It

became common practice in the Middle and

New England colonies for all but the rich, and

perhaps the very poor, to have children learn

to make a living either from their parents or

through a traditional apprenticeship to a master

craftsman. The primarily Protestant parents

would try to have their children apprenticed to

a trade that w

as stable, and would provide them

with a reasonab

le li

ving.

The Journal of Technology Studies

Because of this, highly skilled trades were

very competitive and might come very dearly.

“Doctor Benjamin Rush of colonial Philadelphia

charged 100 pounds to take on an apprentice”

(Heavner, 1978, p. 45). Oftentimes, local officials

decided the fate of children by involuntarily

binding them into an indenture. Many children

would become apprentices at around the age

of fourteen and serve a master craftsman for up

to seven years. During this time, the apprentice

would learn the trade secrets that his master

used, often referred to as the “mysteries” of

the trade.

As mentioned previously, the apprentice

system was adopted from the English system,

however, as shown in studies by Morris (1946),

existing indentures revealed that the arrange-

ments for apprentices in colonial America often

held the masters responsible for different obliga-

tions than those in England.

In particular, the education and clothing of

the apprentice became very important bargain-

ing aspects of the indenture in colonial America.

The majority of indentures that exist from this

time period were printed documents that provid-

ed blank spaces for filling in the price, term,

and any special provisions that were a part of

the agreement. Most of the special provisions

included mention of clothing—the master of

one Daniel Hibler, indented October 13, 1773 in

Philadelphia, promised “at the Expiration of the

Term to give him two Compt. Suits of Apparel

one of which to be new” (Heavner, 1978, pp.

106-107).

The colonists of the Middle and New

England colonies were primarily Protestants

ho v

alued education and w

ould bargain

shrewdly so that their children might learn

reading, writing, and cyphering along with

aining vocational skills. According to Quimby

(1985), in his study of

Apprenticeship in

Colonial Philadelphia, approximately two-thirds

of the indentures that he discovered, dated from

1745-1746 and 1771-1773, indicated provisions

for education.

The Education of Appr

entices

An apprenticeship is a process of lear

ning

by doing and, in essence, the combination of

education and industr

. Be

ond v

ocational

training, however, the master would be required

to teach apprentices morality and practical

studies such as simple bookkeeping, reading,

and writing (Seybolt, 1917, p. 104). These

obligations were carefully regulated by law, as

was evident in the Massachusetts Bay General

Court Order of 1642. Selectmen were employed

to serve districts by visiting masters and deter-

mining whether they were following the law.

The education of apprentices enforced by

law was a unique approach. “The Massachusetts

Bay colonists had originated a brand-new idea;

there was nothing in English law or custom that

could serve as a determining precedent for this

scheme” (Seybolt, 1917, p. 104). Other New

England colonies quickly followed this pattern.

The Connecticut code of 1650 and the Duke of

York’s Laws of 1655 were directly related to the

Laws of Massachusetts. The New York law pos-

tulated that children be instructed in “matters of

Religion and the Lawes of the Country . . . and

in some honest and Lawful Calling” (Seybolt,

1917, p. 106).

The master, regarded in loco parentis, was

usually required to provide such education for at

least the first three years of a child’s indenture.

If the master and his family could not provide

the necessary instruction themselves, the child

was probably sent to a school during the winter,

or whatever period the selected trade was not

particularly busy. If it was available, evening

schools provided a means for educating the

working classes. “The indentures of

Apprenticeship reveal the fact that there was

an evening school in the Royal Colony of New

York as early as 1690, and that by 1705 several

had been opened” (Seybolt, 1917, p. 107). The

demand for schools that taught technical sub-

jects for apprentices can be seen in the follow-

ing advertisement from Philadelphia’s

American

Weekly Mercury

, dated January 14-21, 1729 that

stated:

At the Free-School in Strawberr

y-Lane,

near the Market House, Philadelphia, are taught

Writing, Arithmetick in all the Parts, both

vulgar, Decimal and Duadecimal; Merchants

Accounts after the Italian manner through all

the Part of Commerce; Measuring all Artificers

ork, Gauging, Dialling, with some other prac-

tical Parts of the Mathematicks: Also English

and Latin. N.B. He also teaches a Night School

at the Place aforesaid. By John

alb

. (Quimb

1985, p. 68)

eral successi

e P

oor-Laws were also

enacted in the Massachusetts Bay colonies

The Journal of Technology Studies

between 1703 and 1771. The intention of these

laws was to ascertain that poor apprentices had

the opportunity to learn reading and writing.

These Poor-Laws essentially required that all

children should benefit from an elementary

education and in their final form specified

that males should learn “reading, writing,

and cyphering; females, reading and writing”

(Seybolt, 1917, p. 105).

The Growth of Schools

Traditionally, the master was responsible for

the actual education of the apprentice. However,

the increasing growth of schools, and demands

for educational requirements for all children,

began to affect the apprenticeship system.

Increasingly, masters began to accept the cost

of having the apprentice taught in a school.

Benjamin Franklin, who signed an indenture

form that his business had printed, accepted his-

10-year-old nephew James as his apprentice on

the fifth of November 1740. For the first few

years of his seven-year indenture, James was

sent to school by his uncle before actually work-

ing in the printing office (Quimby, 1985, pp. iv

& 70). Toward the end of the colonial period

there is evidence that masters were relieved

of even that obligation, as the parents of the

apprentice often paid tuition expenses. Quimby

(1985) cited records of indentures from the

American Philosophical Society Library to

reveal that in 1773 “Edward Bartholomew’s

mother paid for four quarters of night school

while his master . . . paid for four quarters

also” (p. 69). In another example from the same

source: the “father of Michael Coats, apprentice

to Samuel Loftis, chaisemaker, paid for all his

son’s evening school expenses” (p. 70) in the

same year. Indentures also revealed that his

master e

xpected the apprentice, to learn certain

skills or useful subjects b

y attending school.

Yet another example from 1773 documented

that “Conrad Gabehard, apprentice to a painter

and glazier, was to be given three quarters of

instruction in a drawing school” (Quimby, 1985,

pp. 71-72).

Education the Key to Success

The fact that apprentices were gaining

education from sources beyond what their

master pro

vided indicated that the relationship

between the master and his apprentice was

becoming less personal. It also indicated that

apprentices w

ere becoming more interested in

getting an education that could help them

adv

ance themselv

es within their v

ocation,

and sometimes beyond. Of course, when the

apprentices completed their indenture they

hoped to make their way as best they could with

the trade that they had learned. It is known that

the majority of apprentices were never so suc-

cessful as to become master craftsmen and pro-

prietors of their own business establishments.

To a large extent, the success of apprentices who

completed their indentures was dependent on the

education they were motivated enough to pursue

on their own (Kaestle, 1983, p. 31). Beyond the

rudimentary skills that they were required to

receive through their apprenticeship, the appren-

tices often read books. In Boston, and in some

other cities, there was an Apprentices’ Library

with books that might be beneficial for appren-

tices. However, the reading that they did was

usually not for pleasure, and rather toward some

goal.

Some of those who served as apprentices

were known to improve themselves beyond the

realm of their trade and become quite important

people in colonial history. Benjamin Franklin

himself was once apprenticed to his brother who

was a printer by trade. He became quite success-

ful through hard work and grew to feel very

strongly about industriousness. He eventually

contributed a great deal to the vocational

preparation and education of youth in colonial

Philadelphia (Rorabaugh, 1986). Other such

people included Paul Revere, who was appren-

ticed as a silversmith, Henry Knox, and

Nathanial Greene, both American generals

during the Revolutionary War.

Conclusion

There were basically three general changes

in the attitude toward the education of indentured

ser

ants and apprentices in colonial

America.

These changes were largely due mainly to the

diversity of the groups that settled the colonies,

the re

gional differences between the colonies,

and the rapidl

y changing environment within the

colonies at this time.

The practice of indentured ser

vitude in

colonial America originated from the English

system of apprenticeship. The traditional meth-

ods used b

y the English w

ere molded to the

needs of the early colonists in order to populate

the New World. Early indentured servants were

primarily laborers and particularly farm workers.

Most of them were not apprentices, since they

already knew their trades and needed little t

raining.

They either entered their indentured

The Journal of Technology Studies

servitude voluntarily to pay for the expense of

their travel to the colonies or were coerced by

officials or trade companies and became inden-

tured against their wishes. The education of the

early indentured servants was not of great con-

cern because they were mostly young adult

laborers and the literacy rate for these servants

was usually quite low.

By the turn of the eighteenth century, slave

labor had developed in the Southern colonies,

cities were growing in the North, and the need

for indentured servants as farm laborers began

to decline. The American system of indentured

servitude began to change back to a role similar

to the traditional English system of apprentice-

ship established to train youth in vocational

skills. The major change was the desire to

educate the indentured apprentices since they

were the native-born children of the primarily

Protestant colonists. The Americans did add a

few unique ideas to their system such as includ-

ing basic educational skills as an integral part of

the training that young apprentices received. In

this scheme, the master was the primary source

of the information and education received.

In colonial America, apprenticeship eventu-

ally became the primary method of technical

instruction. In many colonies, the master

became required by law to provide basic

educational skills for their apprentices. These

laws created for the education of apprentices

had important implications for the education

of all children. The philosophy of Naturalism,

expounded by Rousseau, encouraged

Democratic ideals and influenced the future of

many nations, including America. In his book

Emile, Rousseau described his philosophy of

education, which would include the experience

of learning a purely mechanical art. Often,

Rousseau ‘s writing reflected the fact of the

forthcoming Industrial Revolution, which was

marked by the factory system of producing

goods.

Soon schools began to develop for the

benefit of all. Night schools were also offered

for apprentices. Thus, as the American colonies

neared their independence, the attitude and

approach toward the education of apprentices

had undergone yet another change. By the mid-

eighteenth century the master was no longer the

primary supplier of basic educational skills and

was reduced to teaching vocational skills.

The education that apprentices received became

more centralized under the growing influence of

schools. Considerable debate has surrounded the

importance of the early laws related to the edu-

cation of apprentices in laying the foundation

for the American public school system. Perhaps

the most important outcome was that various

forms of local government took a position that

the delivery of education for all was something

to be valued.

Dr. Mark R. Snyder is a faculty member in the

Department of Industry and Technology at

Millersville University of Pennsylvania. He is a

member of Beta Chi chapter of Epsilon Pi Tau.

References

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